"Are we allowing the entire world to become a kill box—where governments can identify, track, and strike people anywhere with little public oversight?"  Ivermectin: 38 Years in Africa. Over 5 Billion Treatments Worldwide. Merck USA and the World's Largest Drug Program. Long before ivermectin became a household name during the COVID-19 pandemic, it had already become one of the most important medicines ever used in global public health. This episode traces the complete history of ivermectin, from its discovery by Satoshi Ōmura and development by William C. Campbell at Merck to the early human clinical trials led by Dr. Mohammed A. Aziz that demonstrated the drug's effectiveness against river blindness (onchocerciasis). The episode follows the launch of Merck's Mectizan Donation Program in 1987, now recognized as the world's largest long-term drug donation program, with more than five billion treatments distributed. It examines how Merck, the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Bank, the Carter Center, ministries of health, scientists, nonprofit organizations, and hundreds of thousands of community-directed health workers built one of the largest disease-control campaigns in modern history across Africa, Yemen, and Latin America. The discussion explains how river blindness is transmitted by blackflies (Simulium), why Onchocerca volvulus proved so difficult to eliminate, how ivermectin kills the parasite's microfilariae but not the long-lived adult worms, and why repeated treatment programs have continued for decades. The episode also explores Loa loa, Wolbachia bacteria, doxycycline therapy, tropical medicine research, and the scientific challenges surrounding neglected tropical diseases. The program also examines the broader history of tropical medicine through researchers including Dr. R. W. Ashford and others whose work connected Papua New Guinea, Africa, the Amazon Basin, Yemen, Brazil, and Venezuela. Their research crossed multiple diseases, including river blindness, cyclospora, and other neglected tropical infections, illustrating how global health networks evolved over several decades. Finally, the episode explores the remarkable humanitarian legacy of the ivermectin campaign while asking larger historical questions about medicine, international development, Africa, scientific research, and the institutions that shaped one of the largest public health efforts in modern history. It also serves as the foundation for the next episode examining Walter Rodney and his analysis of Africa, development, global power, and the historical forces that continue to influence the continent today.   Clips: How Does Ivermectin Work? - YouTube Why is ivermectin toxic to dogs?   Cancer and Aspirin:  We Were Wrong About Aspirin (New Evidence) River Blindness Treatment: Medications and Surgery | Inciteful Med Resources Program: Mass Drug Administration to Control Onchocerciasis (aka River Blindness) | GiveWell First Step as a Researcher - Wiping Blackboards | S&T articles archive| Sakura Science Club How they use hormones to flip sex:  Hormones  Do you have a psychopath in your life?  The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Download Pods here:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-13" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-13" data-testid= "conversation-turn-28" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-41" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-41" data-testid= "conversation-turn-84" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:bf1b7f6f-ca47-4b7f-bffb-f3fc1d4de5cb-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:bf1b7f6f-ca47-4b7f-bffb-f3fc1d4de5cb-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-turn="assistant"> The Main Players River Blindness (Onchocerciasis) River blindness is caused by a parasitic worm called Onchocerca volvulus. It is spread by infected blackflies. The adult worms live under the skin for 10–15 years and produce millions of tiny baby worms called microfilariae. Those baby worms cause: severe itching skin disease eye damage blindness Ivermectin Ivermectin is the medicine used to control river blindness. Its main job is to kill the baby worms (microfilariae). By removing the baby worms, it: relieves itching helps prevent blindness reduces the chance blackflies spread the disease to other people A single dose usually does not kill the adult worms, so treatment is repeated once or twice a year until the adult worms eventually die naturally. Loa loa Loa loa is a completely different parasite. It causes Loiasis (African eye worm disease) and is spread by deer flies, not blackflies. In parts of Central Africa, some people are infected with both river blindness and Loa loa. Most people tolerate ivermectin well. However, people carrying extremely large numbers of Loa loa larvae in their blood can, in rare cases, develop serious neurological complications after treatment because so many parasites die at once and the body reacts intensely to their sudden destruction. Wolbachia bacteria There is one more important piece. Many adult river blindness worms contain Wolbachia, a type of bacteria that lives inside the worms. The worms depend on these bacteria to survive and reproduce. Scientists discovered that if they kill the Wolbachia bacteria with the antibiotic doxycycline, the adult worms gradually become sterile and eventually die. So today there are two different treatment approaches: Ivermectin rapidly kills the baby worms, reducing symptoms and transmission. Doxycycline attacks the Wolbachia bacteria living inside the adult worms, weakening and eventually killing the adult worms themselves. The Big Picture Think of it this way: Onchocerca volvulus = the parasite that causes river blindness. Microfilariae = the baby worms that cause most of the symptoms. Ivermectin = kills the baby worms. Wolbachia = bacteria living inside the adult worms that help them survive. Doxycycline = kills the Wolbachia bacteria, causing the adult worms to become sterile and eventually die. Loa loa = a separate parasite that can create rare but serious complications if a person has an extremely heavy infection when treated with ivermectin. These are the four key pieces that explain why river blindness treatment has evolved over the past four decades. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:947bd14c-ed1b-4b2d-9662-b4d55e8c5785-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:947bd14c-ed1b-4b2d-9662-b4d55e8c5785-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-turn="assistant"> Here is a single research table focusing on the most influential English-language public promoters of ivermectin during the COVID-19 era and whether discussions of side effects were a significant part of their public messaging. Person / Group Estimated Volume of Ivermectin Content Main Platform Primary Message Were Side Effects a Major Part of Their Messaging? Pierre Kory (FLCCC) 500+ articles, interviews, webinars, testimony FLCCC, podcasts, conferences Strongly promoted ivermectin for COVID treatment and prevention No. Emphasized decades of safe use and generally discussed adverse effects only briefly. Paul Marik (FLCCC) 300+ protocols, interviews, lectures FLCCC Early treatment protocols centered on ivermectin No. Focused primarily on safety record and dosing. FLCCC Alliance Hundreds of publications and webinars Website, newsletters Major institutional promoter Limited discussion. Contraindications and precautions were included, but uncommon neurological complications were not a central theme. Joe Rogan 20–40 podcast episodes or major discussions Spotify podcast Hosted leading ivermectin advocates and discussed his own use Generally no. Conversations focused much more on efficacy, censorship, and policy than adverse effects. Bret Weinstein 100+ podcasts, interviews, appearances DarkHorse, Joe Rogan One of the most persistent non-physician advocates No. Rare neurological complications and Loa loa issues were not major topics. Robert Malone 100+ interviews, blogs, podcasts Podcasts, Substack Frequently argued ivermectin was unfairly suppressed Generally no. Focus remained on access, evidence, and censorship. Jon Rappoport Dozens to over 100 articles Blog Criticized media and government response; supportive of ivermectin discussions Rarely. His writing emphasized media, policy, and freedom more than adverse-effect analysis. America's Frontline Doctors / Simone Gold Hundreds of public statements and events Website, media Promoted physician access and prescribing Limited. Emphasis was on availability and physician autonomy. Robert F. Kennedy Jr. Dozens of interviews Podcasts, speeches Mentioned ivermectin within broader COVID policy criticism Not a major focus. Side effects were generally not discussed in depth. John Campbell Dozens of YouTube videos YouTube Reviewed ivermectin studies and policy debates Some discussion of safety, but uncommon adverse reactions were not a major focus. Overall observation Across this group, the dominant public themes were: Ivermectin's long history of use against parasites. Its Nobel Prize association. Claims regarding COVID-19 effectiveness. Government and media censorship. Regulatory decisions. Topics that generally received much less attention included: Rare neurological complications in people with high Loa loa microfilarial burdens in Central Africa. Mazzotti reactions after parasite death. Overdose toxicity. Drug interactions. Differences between approved antiparasitic use and proposed COVID-19 use. This table reflects the general emphasis of their publicly available content rather than asserting that they never mentioned side effects. Several did discuss safety, but the uncommon adverse reactions associated with specific circumstances (such as Loa loa coinfection) were not a prominent or recurring theme in their public advocacy. The timeline is surprisingly short once the program reached the relevant regions. 1987 – Merck announces the Mectizan Donation Program for river blindness. 1988 – Large-scale ivermectin distribution begins in endemic countries. 1989–1991 – Physicians in parts of Cameroon begin reporting rare cases of coma and severe neurological illness after ivermectin treatment. At first, the cause is unknown. 1992–1994 – Additional cases are documented as treatment expands into more Loa loa-endemic areas of Central Africa. Investigators begin to suspect the events are geographically linked. 1995–1997 – Detailed investigations identify very high Loa loa microfilarial loads as the major risk factor. A landmark 1997 Lancet paper establishes the association. Late 1990s – WHO, national programs, and researchers revise treatment strategies in affected regions, eventually leading to geographic risk mapping, enhanced surveillance, and later screening approaches. So the progression was roughly: 1989–early 1990s: "People are developing severe neurological illness after ivermectin. Why?" Mid-1990s: "These cases all seem to occur where Loa loa is common." 1995–1997: "Patients with the most severe reactions have extraordinarily high Loa loa microfilarial burdens." That finding did not mean ivermectin played no role—the neurological syndrome occurred after ivermectin treatment. Rather, the evidence indicated that the risk was concentrated in a very specific group of patients with heavy Loa loa infections, which allowed treatment programs to be modified instead of concluding that ivermectin posed the same risk to everyone. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:eec9e000-0e02-4a69-b351-5b9f65ff2ca0-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:eec9e000-0e02-4a69-b351-5b9f65ff2ca0-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> Yes. The blood–brain barrier (BBB) issue is sometimes discussed as though it is unique to ivermectin, but it is not. In fact, many drugs are designed to cross the blood–brain barrier, while others are specifically designed not to. Here are some examples: Drug/Class Crosses Blood-Brain Barrier? Why Morphine Yes Pain relief in the brain and spinal cord Fentanyl Yes (very easily) Extremely fat-soluble; acts rapidly in the CNS Diazepam (Valium) Yes Anxiety, seizures, muscle relaxation Alprazolam (Xanax) Yes Anxiety treatment Fluoxetine (Prozac) Yes Must reach the brain to affect serotonin Antipsychotics Yes Treat schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders Levodopa Yes Parkinson's treatment; converted to dopamine in the brain Alcohol Yes Causes intoxication by acting on the brain Nicotine Yes Reaches the brain within seconds of inhalation Caffeine Yes Blocks adenosine receptors in the brain Drugs that normally do NOT cross much Penicillin (most forms) Heparin Insulin Most large antibody drugs Many antibiotics unless the meninges are inflamed These drugs work elsewhere in the body and either are too large or too water-soluble to enter the brain easily. Where ivermectin fits Ivermectin is actually interesting because under normal conditions it penetrates the human brain very poorly. Several protective mechanisms keep it out. The most important is P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a transporter in the blood–brain barrier that actively pumps ivermectin back into the bloodstream if small amounts enter the barrier. Problems can occur when: someone receives an overdose, the blood–brain barrier is impaired, P-glycoprotein is absent or inhibited, or there are unusual biological circumstances. This is also why certain dog breeds (such as Collies with MDR1/ABCB1 gene mutations) can develop severe ivermectin toxicity at doses tolerated by most dogs—their protective transporter does not function normally. The broader perspective One reason the blood–brain barrier became such a focus during COVID discussions is that people asked whether ivermectin itself was causing neurological symptoms. Years of research, including investigations during river blindness programs, found that the rare severe neurological events in people with extremely high Loa loa infections were much more strongly associated with the massive parasite burden and its rapid clearance than with ivermectin routinely crossing into the brain at therapeutic doses. So the key point is: Many common medicines intentionally cross the blood–brain barrier. Ivermectin is generally designed not to, and the body has active mechanisms to keep it out of the brain. When neurological toxicity occurs, researchers look not only at the drug itself but also at dose, genetics, the integrity of the blood–brain barrier, drug interactions, and the underlying disease. So if you compare them: Morphine, Valium, Prozac, alcohol, nicotine: specifically need to reach the brain. Ivermectin: normally kept out of the brain by protective mechanisms. Statins: mainly act in the liver; some cross the blood–brain barrier more than others, but they are not intended to produce their primary effect in the brain. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:bf1b7f6f-ca47-4b7f-bffb-f3fc1d4de5cb-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:bf1b7f6f-ca47-4b7f-bffb-f3fc1d4de5cb-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-8" data-turn="assistant"> In most humans and most dogs, ivermectin does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier in clinically significant amounts at approved doses. The reason is that both species have a protective transport protein called P-glycoprotein, produced by the ABCB1 (formerly MDR1) gene. This protein acts like a pump that moves ivermectin back out of the brain and into the bloodstream. However, there are exceptions. In dogs Some dogs inherit an ABCB1 (MDR1) gene mutation. In those dogs: The P-glycoprotein pump doesn't work properly. More ivermectin can enter and remain in the brain. High doses can produce neurological toxicity, including tremors, seizures, coma, and sometimes death. This is why certain herding breeds are much more susceptible. In humans Most people also have functioning P-glycoprotein at the blood-brain barrier, so approved doses of ivermectin generally result in very low concentrations in the brain. Researchers have studied this extensively because the question naturally arose: if ivermectin affects nerve cells in parasites, what prevents it from affecting ours? Under certain circumstances—such as: very large overdoses, severe impairment of the blood-brain barrier, or possibly rare genetic differences affecting drug transport— more ivermectin may enter the human brain, and neurological toxicity has been reported. These cases are uncommon and are not the expected outcome at approved therapeutic doses. The key point The blood-brain barrier is not an absolute wall. It is a highly selective barrier with active transport systems. So a more accurate way to think about it is: Most dogs and most humans: P-glycoprotein keeps brain exposure very low at recommended doses. Some dogs with the ABCB1 mutation: Significantly more ivermectin can enter the brain, especially at higher doses. Humans: Brain exposure is usually low at approved doses, but higher exposure can occur under unusual circumstances such as overdose or impaired barrier function. So it would not be accurate to say ivermectin "crosses the blood-brain barrier in dogs like humans" in a simple yes/no sense. It is capable of crossing to some extent in both species, but under normal conditions protective transport mechanisms keep brain concentrations low, and those protections can fail or be overwhelmed in certain situations. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:947bd14c-ed1b-4b2d-9662-b4d55e8c5785-19" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:947bd14c-ed1b-4b2d-9662-b4d55e8c5785-19" data-testid= "conversation-turn-40" data-turn="assistant"> Mini Timeline: Discovering the Loa loa–Ivermectin Connection 1975–1978 Satoshi Ōmura (Japan) and Merck scientists discover and develop avermectins. Early studies focus on safety, including why ivermectin generally does not affect the mammalian brain. 1981 Ivermectin is introduced in veterinary medicine. 1987 Merck launches the Mectizan Donation Program for river blindness. At this point, there is no recognized link between ivermectin and severe neurological reactions in people with high Loa loa infections. 1988–1991 Mass treatment expands across Africa. Most programs proceed without reports of unusual neurological complications. 1989–1993 As treatment reaches parts of Cameroon and neighboring Central African countries, physicians begin reporting rare cases of coma and encephalopathy after ivermectin treatment. 1994–1995 More cases are documented. Researchers begin to suspect there is a common factor because the cases cluster geographically. 1995–1997 Investigations identify the cause: Patients with severe reactions have extremely high Loa loa microfilarial loads. The neurological illness is linked to the rapid death of massive numbers of Loa loa microfilariae after ivermectin treatment. 1997 A landmark study in The Lancet establishes the association between very high Loa loa infection and post-ivermectin encephalopathy. Late 1990s WHO, national programs, and researchers revise treatment strategies in high-risk areas. Enhanced surveillance and mapping of Loa loa-endemic regions begin. 2000s Programs adopt risk-reduction measures, including better geographic screening and, later, targeted "test-and-not-treat" approaches in some regions. 2010s–Present The Loa loa complication remains a recognized but uncommon risk in specific areas of Central Africa. It is now incorporated into tropical medicine guidelines, and the large wave of unexpected cases seen in the early years of mass treatment has not recurred at the same scale after these program changes. This timeline shows that it took about 8–10 years from the start of the Mectizan Donation Program in 1987 until researchers clearly identified very high Loa loa infection as the major risk factor for these rare neurological complications. In ivermectin's case, the key insight of the 1990s was that the neurological complications were not primarily due to ivermectin acting directly on the brain at normal doses. Instead, they were strongly associated with people who had extraordinarily high Loa loa infections, where rapid killing of massive numbers of microfilariae triggered the severe reaction. It's also true that if researchers had not identified a specific risk factor, the repeated occurrence of unexplained severe neurological events could have undermined confidence in ivermectin much more broadly. Public health programs generally depend on being able to explain adverse events and reduce their occurrence. Identifying the association with Loa loa gave investigators a biologically plausible explanation and a basis for changing practice. Before that discovery, clinicians were seeing rare but alarming neurological events after ivermectin treatment in certain areas, without a clear explanation. Once researchers recognized that the cases clustered in people with very high Loa loa microfilarial loads. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:947bd14c-ed1b-4b2d-9662-b4d55e8c5785-20" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:947bd14c-ed1b-4b2d-9662-b4d55e8c5785-20" data-testid= "conversation-turn-42" data-turn="assistant"> Early development (1970s–early 1980s) focused on questions such as: Is ivermectin toxic to mammals? Does it enter the brain? What dose is safe? How is it metabolized? What are the effects in laboratory animals and early human studies? Those studies generally involved healthy animals, veterinary species, and controlled human trials. They were not designed to detect a rare interaction that would occur only in people with extremely high Loa loa microfilarial burdens living in certain regions of Central Africa. The Loa loa problem became apparent only when several conditions came together: Millions of people were treated in mass campaigns. Treatment expanded into areas where Loa loa was common. A very small subset of people had exceptionally high parasite loads. Clinicians observed a pattern of severe neurological illness after treatment and investigated it. So it wasn't that researchers ignored brain safety for 8–10 years. Rather, they had identified one safety issue (how ivermectin itself behaves in mammals), while a different, population-specific safety issue emerged only after large-scale use revealed it. That sequence is not unique to ivermectin. Some rare adverse reactions are discovered only after a medicine is used in very large and diverse populations because clinical trials are usually far too small to detect events that occur, for example, once in tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of people. In ivermectin's case, the key insight of the 1990s was that the neurological complications were not primarily due to ivermectin acting directly on the brain at normal doses. Instead, they were strongly associated with people who had extraordinarily high Loa loa infections, where rapid killing of massive numbers of microfilariae triggered the severe reaction. If you're comparing countries, the other major powers that also did not have endemic river blindness include: Russia China Japan Most of Europe Canada United States Australia The large, decades-long ivermectin donation campaigns instead focused on endemic regions in Africa, Yemen, and limited parts of Latin America. First Step as a Researcher - Wiping Blackboard From April 1, 1965, Satoshi Omura became a researcher at the Kitasato Institute. The Kitasato Institute is a research institute founded by Shibasaburo Kitasato, an outstanding medical scientist of modern Japan. He was born in 1852, graduated from the University of Tokyo School of Medicine, and studied in Germany at Robert Koch's laboratory. Shibasaburo did a lot of work to pioneer cutting edge medical research at the time, such as pursuing pure culture of tetanus bacteria. His efforts were so dedicated that he sacrificed sleep for his experiments. In the experiment to plant bacteria in the medium, he did not take any meals and continued his work for 10 hours straight, which astonished Koch. After he completed his overseas studies of six years and six months, Shibasaburo returned home, and founded the Kitasato Institute. Omura had joined this distinguished institute, but he was hired as an assistant to Director Toju Hata, and his first job was to note down what was taught in his class and to wipe the blackboard. Omura realized that he was not yet accepted as a full-fledged researcher at Kitasato. So every morning, he came to the lab at six o'clock, to clean the room and to write-up the final copy of each academic paper. Back then, there were not any word processors or computers. Writing up the final draft was a very important task. Omura worked hard, trying to find any typos or inadvertent mistakes made by the author. In the end, fixing such mistakes really is an indispensable task, Omura thought to himself. It was around that time that an unfamiliar foreign visitor came to the laboratory. It was Professor Yoshida Zen'ichi of Kyoto University who guided in the visitor from abroad. Professor Yoshida was a famous scholar who served as Chairman of Japan's Chemical Society at that time. The foreigner who visited the lab was Paul von Rague Schleyer, a professor at Princeton University and a famous scholar in the field of organic chemistry. He had read Omura's paper written in English. Omura had written this paper during his graduate school days at Tokyo University of Science. Professor von Schleyer and Omura exchanged views on determining chemical substance structures using NMR. Omura was deeply impressed because it was his first time to meet such a distinguished foreign researcher. Because Omura had written his paper in English, researchers outside Japan could also read and evaluated it. "It was from this instance, I think, that I clearly made up my mind to become a researcher," Omura recalls. Highly Evaluated for His Theses Omura's salary at that time was not high, so life was not easy. However, his wife Fumiko supported the household by opening a private tutoring class or by individually tutoring students. Fumiko who was bright-natured cooperated without any complaints. When Omura got his Nobel Prize, one reporter asked how he felt. "The first person I broke this great news to was my deceased wife, who supported me during my hardest times. I talked to her in my heart,"responded Omura. Omura started his research on chemical structure determination. The Kitasato laboratory already had equipment for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and infrared spectroscopy (IR). However, the only person who could read and decipher the data was Omura. That was because he was able to use the NMR at Tokyo Industrial Testing Laboratory. It was the only NMR in Japan at that time. Omura felt that his efforts had come to fruition after all his sleepless nights conducting experiments during his master's program at Tokyo Science University. Omura's research to investigate the structure of leucomycin had proceeded smoothly, and he was finally able to determine its structure. Subsequently, Director Hata had instructed Omura to perform separation, crystallization and structure determination of cerulenin. Hata was beginning to evaluate Omura's work highly and Omura was given new challenges one after the other. Cerulenin is an antibiotic produced by a certain microorganism. Omura performed this task well and published it as a paper. Both of these tasks were pioneering attempts using NMR to determine the structure of natural substances. Suffering from Neurosis – Fumiko Saves Omura The research progresses steadily and Omura wrote papers one after another and presented them. However, Omura gradually lost the purpose in his research. Was his research really useful or not? Even when he went to the laboratory, he was thinking to himself in silence. His wife Fumiko quickly noticed this negative change and took him to the hospital. The doctor told Omura that he is working too much and that he needs a hobby. Lending his ear to the doctor, Omura takes up golf. Still, dark feelings crept up in his mind while thinking about his future. Omura sought advice from other researchers outside the institute whom he met during academic meetings. He also went to an international conference held in Europe with Fumiko to distract himself from depressing moods. After he returns from Europe, Omura went to seek advice from a famous chemistry researcher on how to direct his future research. He gives an unexpected advice to Omura. "Go study in the United Sates! It's good to experience the American research environment and think about your next step." Omura was taken aback. The idea of studying abroad had never occurred to him until then. These words changed Omura's life.                                                                Omura achieved many results as a researcher at the Kitasato Institute   Source:  First Step as a Researcher - Wiping Blackboards | S&T articles archive| Sakura Science Club From Imperial Army Microbiology to Ivermectin The Kitasato Scientific Lineage When most people hear the story of ivermectin, they usually begin with Japanese scientist Dr. Satoshi Ōmura, who collected soil samples during the 1970s and discovered a microorganism that eventually led to the development of avermectin. Merck scientists in the United States later recognized the extraordinary antiparasitic properties of that microorganism and developed ivermectin. That is the familiar story. What is discussed far less often is how Ōmura became the scientist who made that discovery. Scientists do not appear out of nowhere. They are trained by other scientists, who themselves were trained by earlier generations. This report follows that scientific lineage through one institution—the Kitasato Institute in Japan—and asks how knowledge, research traditions and scientific leadership passed from one generation to the next. The timeline begins long before ivermectin existed.   From Imperial Army Microbiology to Ivermectin The Kitasato Scientific Lineage When most people hear the story of ivermectin, they usually begin with Japanese scientist Dr. Satoshi Ōmura. During the 1970s, Ōmura and his research group collected soil samples from different parts of Japan, searching for microorganisms that might produce useful medicines. One of those samples contained a previously unknown strain of bacteria that produced a family of compounds later named avermectins. That discovery was only the Japanese half of the story. Shibasaburo Kitasato: The Founder The story begins with Dr. Shibasaburo Kitasato, born in 1853. Kitasato was one of the founders of modern Japanese bacteriology. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, he became internationally respected for research involving tetanus, plague, cholera and other infectious diseases. This was a period when scientists were beginning to prove that particular microorganisms caused particular diseases. Governments were also developing formal systems for sanitation, quarantine and epidemic control. Kitasato became one of Japan's leading authorities in this new field. His work extended beyond the laboratory into public health, quarantine and military sanitation. He eventually established what became the Kitasato Institute, one of Japan's most important centers for bacteriology, microbiology and infectious-disease research. The institute trained scientists, maintained laboratories and created a professional network that survived Kitasato's death in 1931. Kitasato therefore established more than a research facility. He established a scientific tradition. Sahachiro Hata: From Bacteriology to Drug Development One of Shibasaburo Kitasato's most important associates was Dr. Sahachiro Hata. The similar names can be confusing, so the relationship should be clear from the beginning: Shibasaburo Kitasato founded the institute. Sahachiro Hata was one of his leading students and associates. Sahachiro Hata became a prominent Japanese bacteriologist. He conducted research on plague under Kitasato and later traveled to Germany to work with scientist Paul Ehrlich. At that time, syphilis was a widespread and often devastating disease. Ehrlich was searching for a chemical that could kill the organism responsible for syphilis without killing the patient. Ehrlich and Hata tested hundreds of chemical compounds. Their work produced arsphenamine, commonly known as Salvarsan, in 1909. Salvarsan became one of the first widely successful drugs specifically directed against an infectious organism. It was an important early step toward modern antimicrobial medicine. Sahachiro Hata's career also included military medical service and work in South Manchuria before the Second World War. He later became deputy director of the Kitasato Institute. His career brought several fields together inside the same scientific tradition: bacteriology, infectious disease, drug development, military medicine, quarantine and work connected with Manchuria. Sahachiro Hata is also important because of his relationship to the next central figure. Toju Hata was his adopted son and heir. Toju had been born into the Fujimatsu family. After his adoption, he took the Hata family name and entered the same scientific and institutional world associated with Sahachiro Hata and the Kitasato Institute. Toju Hata: The Bridge Between War and Postwar Medicine Dr. Toju Hata joined the Kitasato Institute in 1936 as a young microbiologist. He was entering both the institute founded by Shibasaburo Kitasato and the scientific world in which his adoptive father, Sahachiro Hata, had become a major figure. One year later, in 1937, Japan's war in China expanded dramatically. Toju Hata was drafted into the Imperial Japanese Army and sent to Manchuria. Manchuria was a major center of Japanese military operations. It was also a major center of military medicine, epidemic prevention, bacteriology and biological-warfare activity. The publicly available accounts of Toju Hata's career provide very little information about this assignment. They state that he served in Manchuria, but they do not identify his Army unit, commanding officer, military hospital, laboratory, location or precise duties. In 1938, Hata was transferred from Manchuria to the Ninoshima Army Quarantine Station near Hiroshima. Ninoshima was a major military quarantine and disinfection facility. Japanese soldiers returning from overseas passed through the station before reentering the country. They could be medically examined, isolated, bathed and disinfected. Their uniforms, equipment and possessions could also be disinfected. The purpose was to stop diseases carried by military personnel from spreading inside Japan. Hata was therefore not serving in an unrelated Army position. He was a trained microbiologist assigned to the Army's system of quarantine, infectious-disease control and large-scale disinfection. The Wider Military Medical System and Unit 731 To understand why Hata's wartime career matters, it is necessary to understand the structure of Japanese military medicine. The Imperial Japanese Army operated military hospitals, quarantine stations, sanitation departments, bacteriology laboratories, epidemic-prevention organizations and water-purification units. Some of these organizations performed ordinary military health work. Disease could disable armies as effectively as enemy fire. Cholera, typhoid, dysentery and other infections had to be detected, contained and prevented. But the same military medical system also contained Japan's secret biological-warfare program. The organization later known as Unit 731 officially operated under the name Kwantung Army Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department. That title made it sound like a conventional public-health organization responsible for safe water, military sanitation and epidemic control. Behind that public identity, Unit 731 conducted biological-warfare research, produced disease agents and carried out lethal experiments on prisoners. Unit 731 did not operate in complete isolation from the rest of Japanese military medicine. It existed inside a wider professional system involving Army physicians, bacteriologists, laboratories, hospitals, epidemic-prevention units and water-purification organizations. Toju Hata's documented wartime career placed him inside that same broad professional environment. He was a microbiologist. He served in Manchuria while Unit 731 was operating and expanding there. He was then transferred to an Army quarantine station devoted to disease control and disinfection. His exact Manchurian unit and duties remain unidentified in the public accounts of his life. Toju Hata Returns to Kitasato After Japan's surrender in 1945, Toju Hata returned to the Kitasato Institute and resumed scientific research. Medical research was entering a new era. Penicillin had shown that one microorganism could produce a substance capable of killing another microorganism. Scientists around the world began collecting soil, growing bacteria and fungi, and testing the chemicals those organisms produced. Soil became one of the principal places scientists searched for new medicines. Toju Hata became an important figure in Japan's postwar search for antibiotics and other biologically active compounds. His research was associated with leucomycin, an antibiotic used against bacterial infections, and mitomycin, a microbial compound later used in cancer treatment. The Kitasato laboratories continued searching for microorganisms that produced useful chemicals. This was not a complete break from the institute's earlier history. Kitasato had always concentrated on microorganisms, infectious disease and medical treatment. The postwar difference was the growing effort to screen large numbers of microorganisms systematically and turn the chemicals they produced into drugs. Toju Hata eventually became director of the Kitasato Institute and the first president of Kitasato University. Under his leadership, the institution became one of Japan's leading centers for antibiotic and microbial-drug research. Satoshi Ōmura Enters Toju Hata's Research World Satoshi Ōmura was born in 1935 and was ten years old when the Second World War ended. He later trained in chemistry, pharmacy, fermentation science and microbiology. Ōmura joined the Kitasato Institute in 1965. At that time, Toju Hata was director. This is the important connection. Ōmura did not arrive at an institution with no history behind it. He entered a laboratory culture that Toju Hata had helped shape through years of postwar antibiotic research. Hata was also more than a distant administrator. He and Ōmura conducted research together and published scientific papers together. Their work included the study of kinamycin, an antibiotic produced by a microorganism obtained from Japanese soil. The research method was straightforward but labor-intensive. Scientists collected soil from different locations. They separated microorganisms from those samples. They grew the organisms under controlled conditions. They examined the chemicals produced during fermentation. They tested those chemicals to determine whether they affected bacteria, parasites, tumors or other biological targets. Ōmura became highly skilled at finding unusual microorganisms and identifying the compounds they produced. The Japanese portion of the ivermectin story therefore grew directly out of the Kitasato Institute's established program of searching soil microorganisms for medicines. How Merck Became Involved The Kitasato Institute could discover microorganisms and identify promising natural compounds, but developing a commercial medicine required far greater resources. A pharmaceutical company had the laboratories, chemists, animal-testing programs, manufacturing facilities and regulatory experience needed to turn a promising natural substance into a usable drug. That is why Merck became part of the story. Merck was a major American pharmaceutical company with large research laboratories in New Jersey. Ōmura developed a working relationship with Dr. Max Tishler, a respected pharmaceutical chemist who had held senior positions at Merck. Through that relationship, Kitasato sent promising microorganisms and fermentation products to Merck so they could be tested against a much wider range of diseases and biological targets. The partnership divided the work according to expertise. Kitasato specialized in locating unusual microorganisms and studying the chemicals they produced. Merck had the resources to test those chemicals extensively, alter them chemically and develop them into medicines. That collaboration connected Japanese soil research with an American pharmaceutical-development program. William C. Campbell and the Avermectins Dr. William C. Campbell was a parasitologist working at Merck. A parasitologist studies organisms that survive by living in or on other organisms. Campbell's particular work included parasitic worms that infected livestock. Those infections caused disease in cattle, sheep, horses and other animals. They also created major economic losses for agriculture. Merck was therefore actively searching for better veterinary treatments. When the microorganism selected by Ōmura's group reached Merck, scientists grew it and studied the substances it produced. Campbell and his colleagues tested those substances against parasitic worms. The activity was unusually powerful. The natural compounds produced by the microorganism became known as avermectins. These natural compounds were not yet ivermectin. Merck chemists modified one of them to improve its usefulness, safety and effectiveness. That chemically modified compound became ivermectin. Merck introduced ivermectin first as a veterinary medicine in the early 1980s. It became highly successful in treating parasitic infections in livestock and other animals. From Veterinary Medicine to River Blindness After ivermectin proved successful in animals, William Campbell proposed testing it against the parasite responsible for river blindness, also known as onchocerciasis. River blindness is caused by a parasitic worm spread through the bites of infected blackflies. Adult worms live inside the human body for years and release large numbers of microscopic larvae called microfilariae. Those larvae move through the skin and eyes, causing intense itching, skin disease, impaired vision and sometimes blindness. Human studies showed that ivermectin could dramatically reduce the number of microfilariae. The treatment did not normally kill all the long-lived adult worms, so doses had to be repeated over many years. In 1987, Merck introduced the human form of ivermectin under the name Mectizan and announced that it would donate the medicine for river-blindness programs. The project grew into an enormous international campaign involving Merck, the World Health Organization, governments, nonprofit organizations, health workers and communities across Africa and other affected regions. Conclusion The story of ivermectin is often reduced to three statements. Satoshi Ōmura found a microorganism in Japanese soil. William Campbell and Merck discovered that its compounds killed parasites. Merck developed ivermectin. That summary leaves out the scientific tradition that produced the discovery. Shibasaburo Kitasato established Japan's modern bacteriology and infectious-disease research system. His associate Sahachiro Hata carried that work into antimicrobial drug development, military medicine and South Manchuria. Sahachiro's adopted son, Toju Hata, entered the Kitasato Institute as a microbiologist, served in the Imperial Japanese Army in Manchuria, transferred to the Ninoshima Army Quarantine Station and returned after the war to become a leader in antibiotic research. Satoshi Ōmura joined Kitasato while Toju Hata was director. The two scientists worked directly together on medicines produced by soil microorganisms. Ōmura later entered a formal collaboration with Merck. William Campbell and his colleagues tested the compounds against parasitic worms. Merck chemists then transformed one of the natural avermectins into ivermectin. The path to ivermectin therefore extended across generations. It began with Japan's early bacteriology establishment, passed through military medicine and quarantine, continued through postwar antibiotic research and eventually connected with Merck's American pharmaceutical laboratories. At the center of that transition was Toju Hata: the adopted son of Sahachiro Hata, an Army microbiologist who served in Manchuria and at Ninoshima, a postwar antibiotic researcher, director of Kitasato and a direct scientific collaborator with Satoshi Ōmura. The public record clearly documents that lineage. It leaves one major period largely unexplained: Toju Hata's precise military assignment and duties in Manchuria before his transfer to Ninoshima. The clearest elite connections tied directly to the Kitasato institution are these:  Shibasaburo Kitasato himself became part of Japan's titled elite. In 1924, he was made a baron under Japan's hereditary peerage system. He was also a member of the Imperial Academy and received high imperial decorations. So by the later part of his life, Kitasato was not merely a scientist working outside the establishment; he had been formally elevated into it.   Yukichi Fukuzawa was Kitasato's most important early patron. Fukuzawa founded Keio University and was one of the most influential intellectual and institutional figures of modern Japan. He helped Kitasato establish Japan's first private infectious-disease institute and supported the tuberculosis hospital on the site where the later Kitasato Institute was built. Kitasato later repaid that support by helping establish Keio's medical school.   Morimura Ichizaemon supplied industrial wealth. Morimura was a major businessman who built an industrial and trading empire that later included companies associated with Noritake, TOTO and NGK. Official histories state that he financially supported Kitasato's infectious-disease institute in 1892 and made major donations to Kitasato and other elite educational institutions.   The Home Ministry and senior government medical officials were directly involved. Kitasato worked for the Home Ministry's Sanitary Affairs Bureau after medical school. His early institute was supported through the efforts of senior public-health official Nagayo Sensai and politician Hasegawa Tai. The institute was later nationalized, showing that Kitasato's work was connected from the beginning to the upper levels of Japan's public-health administration.   There was also a strong connection to Keio University, one of Japan's most prestigious private institutions. Sahachiro Hata trained within the Kitasato network and had studied at the same elite intersection of bacteriology, government medicine and international research. Toju Hata later inherited both the Hata name and that institutional position.  So the direct elite structure around the institution was not vague:  Kitasato became a baron.  Fukuzawa supplied intellectual prestige and institutional backing.  Morimura supplied industrial money.  The Home Ministry supplied government authority.  Keio supplied an elite educational network.  show that the Kitasato Institute was built from the beginning through a compact alliance of government medicine, wealthy industrial patrons, prestigious education and the imperial honors system. That is the elite network directly attached to the place we are tracking.  George W. Merck established the philosophy.   Max Tishler built the Japan–Merck partnership.   William Campbell recognized the drug's potential.   Mohammed Aziz proved it worked in humans.   Roy Vagelos ensured it reached millions of people through the donation program.  Ivermectin Timeline (1973–Present) 1973 Japanese microbiologist Dr. Satoshi Ōmura of the Kitasato Institute collects soil samples throughout Japan searching for microorganisms that might produce useful medicines. One sample contains a previously unknown bacterium, later named Streptomyces avermitilis (now Streptomyces avermectinius). 1974 Ōmura sends the most promising bacterial cultures to Merck Research Laboratories in Rahway, New Jersey. Merck parasitologist Dr. William C. Campbell begins testing the organisms against parasitic worms affecting livestock. 1975 Merck scientists isolate a family of natural compounds produced by the bacterium and name them avermectins. The compounds prove extraordinarily effective against many parasitic worms. 1978–1979 Merck chemically modifies avermectin to produce a safer, more potent compound for practical use. The new drug is named ivermectin. 1981 Ivermectin is introduced worldwide as a veterinary medicine. It quickly becomes one of the most successful antiparasitic drugs ever developed for cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, and companion animals. 1981–1986 Human clinical trials begin for river blindness (onchocerciasis) in Africa. Researchers discover ivermectin dramatically reduces the number of microfilariae (baby worms) that cause severe itching, skin disease, and blindness. Scientists also discover an important limitation: Ivermectin kills the baby worms but does not usually kill the long-lived adult worms. Instead, it temporarily prevents adult female worms from producing new baby worms. 1987 Merck receives approval for the human form of ivermectin under the brand name Mectizan. Merck CEO Dr. Roy Vagelos announces the Mectizan Donation Program: "As much as needed, for as long as needed." Merck agrees to donate ivermectin free of charge for river blindness control. This becomes one of the largest humanitarian drug donation programs in history. Late 1980s Mass treatment programs begin across Africa. Communities receive ivermectin once or twice each year. Because adult worms live approximately 10–15 years, treatment must continue year after year until the adult worms naturally die. Early 1990s Programs expand rapidly across sub-Saharan Africa. Researchers observe enormous reductions in: severe itching skin disease blindness transmission of river blindness Mid-1990s Doctors working in parts of Central Africa begin reporting a rare but serious problem. Some patients become severely ill shortly after taking ivermectin. Investigations reveal these patients are not suffering from river blindness alone. Instead, they also carry very high numbers of another parasite called Loa loa (African eye worm). 1995–2000 Scientists determine the neurological complications are associated with people who have extremely high Loa loa microfilarial loads. The evidence indicates the complications are primarily related to the rapid death of massive numbers of Loa loa microfilariae after treatment, rather than ivermectin crossing into and damaging the human brain under normal dosing. This complication is found almost entirely in regions where Loa loa and river blindness overlap. Late 1990s–2000s Public health programs adapt. Health workers begin: mapping Loa loa regions screening high-risk communities modifying treatment strategies where necessary Mass ivermectin programs continue safely in most endemic regions. 2000s The Mectizan Donation Program expands beyond river blindness to support efforts against lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) in many countries through combination drug programs. 2010s Several countries in Latin America eliminate river blindness transmission. Large parts of Africa also make major progress toward elimination. More than 3 billion ivermectin treatments have been distributed. 2015 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded jointly to: Dr. Satoshi Ōmura (Japan) Dr. William C. Campbell (Merck, USA) for discoveries leading to ivermectin. 2020–2022 Ivermectin becomes the subject of worldwide controversy during the COVID-19 pandemic, generating intense scientific, medical, and political debate far beyond its original role as an antiparasitic medicine. 2023–2026 The Mectizan Donation Program continues. More than 5 billion treatments have now been donated worldwide. River blindness has been eliminated or interrupted in several countries, while many African nations continue annual treatment campaigns. Researchers continue studying new approaches—including doxycycline, which targets the Wolbachia bacteria living inside adult river blindness worms—in hopes of shortening treatment times and eventually eliminating the disease. The program brought together: Merck – Donated the medicine, committing in 1987 to provide it "as much as needed, for as long as needed." World Health Organization (WHO) – Developed treatment guidelines, coordinated technical strategy, and worked with ministries of health. World Bank – Helped finance and coordinate major river blindness control programs in Africa, particularly the Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) and the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC). The Carter Center – Expanded community-directed treatment and supported elimination efforts in multiple countries. National Ministries of Health – Organized the treatment campaigns within each country. Community Drug Distributors – Millions of local volunteers who carried tablets village to village, often on foot. Scientists and tropical medicine researchers – Continued mapping disease, monitoring transmission, studying blackflies, and improving treatment strategies. NGOs – Including Sightsavers, Helen Keller International, CBM, IMA World Health, Lions Clubs, and many others that supplied staff, logistics, and training. One reason many public health historians point to the ivermectin program as a milestone is that it showed what could be accomplished when a pharmaceutical company, international organizations, governments, scientists, and local communities all committed to the same long-term goal. It became a model that later influenced medicine donation programs for trachoma, lymphatic filariasis, intestinal worms, schistosomiasis, and other neglected tropical diseases. That's why the legacy of ivermectin isn't just more than 5 billion treatments. It's also the public health infrastructure that grew around it—networks of researchers, health workers, ministries, NGOs, and international agencies that continued working together on other neglected tropical diseases long after the first ivermectin tablets were distributed.   1967 – A 3-year-old Yanomami child with scalp nodules is examined. The parasite is identified as Onchocerca volvulus. Researchers investigate surrounding villages. A previously unknown endemic focus of river blindness is discovered in the Amazon along the Brazil–Venezuela borde 1967 – Brazilian physicians examine a 3-year-old Yanomami child with two scalp nodules. When the nodules are surgically removed and examined, they identify Onchocerca volvulus, the parasitic worm that causes river blindness. This is the first recognized case in Brazil. Late 1960s–Early 1970s – The discovery prompts Brazilian researchers to investigate neighboring Yanomami villages along the Brazil–Venezuela border. Rather than finding an isolated case, they discover that river blindness is already established throughout a remote region of the Amazon. Entomologists identify local Simulium blackflies capable of transmitting the parasite, confirming that an active transmission cycle exists. 1970s–1980s – Researchers continue mapping the endemic area, documenting infection in numerous Yanomami communities. The region is found to be one of the most isolated river blindness foci in the world, accessible mainly by aircraft, river travel, and long treks through dense rainforest. 1987 – Merck announces the Mectizan Donation Program, pledging to provide ivermectin free of charge for as long as needed to fight river blindness worldwide. 1990 – Brazil begins regular ivermectin distribution among the Yanomami as part of the Pan American Health Organization's regional elimination program. 1992 – Brazil officially recognizes the Yanomami Indigenous Territory, protecting approximately 96,650 square kilometers (37,317 square miles) of rainforest. The protected area improves access for organized public health campaigns, although the remoteness of many villages continues to make treatment one of the most challenging river blindness programs anywhere in the world. 2000s–Present – Most endemic areas in the Americas eliminate river blindness through repeated ivermectin treatment. The Yanomami region on the Brazil–Venezuela border remains the last endemic focus in the Americas, requiring continued treatment because of its vast size, scattered villages, and difficult terrain. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-40" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-40" data-testid= "conversation-turn-82" data-turn="assistant"> The biggest medicine donation and mass treatment campaigns in history, Program Drug Started Scale River Blindness (Onchocerciasis) Ivermectin (Merck) 1987 More than 5 billion treatments donated over 38+ years. Widely regarded as the largest long-term medicine donation program in history. Lymphatic Filariasis Ivermectin + albendazole (Africa); DEC + albendazole elsewhere 1998–2000 Hundreds of millions of people treated annually in many years; more than 500 million people per year by 2011. Intestinal Worms (School Deworming) Albendazole (GlaxoSmithKline), mebendazole (Johnson & Johnson) 1997 / 2005 More than 9.8 billion albendazole tablets and hundreds of millions of mebendazole treatments donated to children worldwide. Trachoma Azithromycin (Pfizer) 1998 Hundreds of millions of doses donated through the International Trachoma Initiative to eliminate blinding trachoma. Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) Praziquantel (Merck KGaA, Germany) 2007 More than 1 billion tablets donated for school-age children in Africa and elsewhere. Leprosy Multidrug therapy (Novartis) 2000 More than 5 million patients treated through WHO donation programs. In perspective The 1987 Merck ivermectin program changed global public health. Before then, no pharmaceutical company had committed to donating a medicine for as long as necessary to eliminate a disease. That pledge became the model for many later neglected tropical disease donation programs. Since then, similar programs have followed: 1997 – GlaxoSmithKline begins donating albendazole. 1998 – Pfizer begins donating azithromycin. 2005 – Johnson & Johnson expands mebendazole donations. 2007 – Merck KGaA launches the praziquantel donation program. 2013 – Eisai begins donating diethylcarbamazine (DEC) for lymphatic filariasis. From a historical standpoint, the ivermectin program is generally considered the first and the largest of these global medicine donation efforts, and it became the template for many of the others that followed. Yes, there is considerable overlap, although not everyone works on both. They are generally part of the same broad scientific community: Parasitologists – scientists who study parasites of all kinds (worms and protozoa). Tropical medicine specialists – physicians and researchers who work on diseases common in tropical regions. Medical entomologists – experts on insects and other arthropods that transmit disease (such as blackflies and mosquitoes). Epidemiologists – researchers who study how diseases spread in populations. Global health researchers – often work across multiple tropical diseases. Within that community, people often specialize. For example: A scientist who spends an entire career studying Onchocerca (river blindness) is a helminthologist, because Onchocerca is a parasitic worm (a helminth). Someone studying Cyclospora is more likely a protozoologist, because Cyclospora is a protozoan parasite. Even so, they attend many of the same conferences, publish in many of the same journals, belong to the same tropical medicine societies, and may collaborate on projects involving neglected tropical diseases. One interesting connection in your research is R. W. Ashford. Ashford is best known to you because he first described what became known as Cyclospora in Papua New Guinea in 1979. But Ashford was not just a Cyclospora researcher. He was a broad tropical parasitologist. During his career he published on: intestinal parasites, filarial worms, schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, zoonotic parasites, tropical epidemiology, and many other parasitic diseases. That was quite common, especially in the 1960s–1990s. Tropical medicine researchers often worked on multiple parasites, particularly if they were based in endemic countries or institutions like the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine or the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. So while the scientists studying Cyclospora and river blindness are not necessarily the same individuals, they are often members of the same broader research community. Many are trained in tropical medicine or parasitology and may work across several parasitic diseases during their careers. That is one reason you keep encountering some of the same institutions, journals, and organizations as you move from one tropical disease to another. Yemen and River Blindness (Onchocerciasis): Timeline Unlike most countries affected by river blindness, Yemen is the only country outside Africa where onchocerciasis remains endemic. The disease in Yemen is known locally as sowda, a severe inflammatory skin form of the infection. Unlike much of Africa, blindness has been uncommon in Yemen; the disease has primarily caused intense itching, skin damage, and disability. Early 1940s The first medical descriptions of onchocerciasis in Yemen are published. Physicians identify a distinctive form of skin disease that would later become known locally as sowda. 1987 Merck launches the Mectizan Donation Program, promising to donate ivermectin for as long as needed to fight river blindness worldwide. Yemen eventually becomes one of the countries receiving donated medicine. 1992 Yemen begins its first national ivermectin treatment program. Unlike Africa, where ivermectin was generally distributed once or twice a year through mass campaigns, Yemeni doctors initially treated individual patients suffering from sowda. Because symptoms often returned within a few months, patients were commonly treated every three months. 1993 The control program expands into additional endemic valleys along Yemen's western mountains and Red Sea watershed. Treatment becomes integrated with the country's National Leprosy Control Programme. 1994 Researchers publish one of the first scientific reports describing the successful use of ivermectin for river blindness in Yemen. 2001 The Ministry of Public Health establishes the National Onchocerciasis Control Program (NOCP) based in Taiz. By this time, thousands of patients have already received ivermectin, and distribution continues to expand with assistance from local organizations and the Mectizan Donation Program. 2002–2007 Yemen combines ivermectin distribution with a campaign against lymphatic filariasis in areas where both diseases overlap, improving efficiency by treating multiple neglected tropical diseases together. 2011–2013 Health officials and international experts reassess Yemen's program, shifting the goal from simply treating sick patients toward eliminating transmission through broader mass drug administration. 2015–Present Despite civil war, humanitarian crises, and difficult terrain, Yemen continues ivermectin campaigns with support from the Ministry of Health, WHO, ESPEN, the Mectizan Donation Program, and international partners. 2019 Nearly 500,000 Yemenis receive ivermectin during a nationwide campaign involving almost 1,000 treatment teams working across 33 endemic districts despite ongoing conflict. 2025 Yemen carries out one of its largest-ever ivermectin campaigns, reaching remote mountain communities that had previously been difficult to access because of conflict and geography. 2026 The elimination campaign continues. WHO describes Yemen as one of the world's most challenging river blindness programs because of war, mountainous terrain, and isolated communities. Even so, mass ivermectin distribution remains the cornerstone of the country's strategy to eliminate the disease. Why Yemen Matters Yemen occupies a unique place in the history of river blindness. It is the only endemic country outside Africa. Its form of the disease—sowda—primarily causes severe skin disease rather than blindness. It pioneered more frequent ivermectin treatment schedules because symptoms often returned quickly. Despite years of armed conflict, it continues to participate in the world's largest ivermectin donation program. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-6" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-6" data-testid= "conversation-turn-14" data-turn="assistant"> Yes. Yemen is still receiving ivermectin treatments today. Despite the civil war, WHO, the Yemen Ministry of Health, the Mectizan Donation Program, and their partners have continued annual mass drug administration campaigns. The numbers are much smaller than in many African countries because Yemen has a much smaller endemic population. Yemen Ivermectin Program at a Glance 1992 Yemen begins its national ivermectin program, initially treating individual patients with the severe skin form of river blindness ("sowda"). 2000s The program expands into broader community treatment in endemic districts and later shifts toward elimination rather than simply treating cases. 2019 Nearly 500,000 people were treated during a nationwide campaign across 33 districts despite the ongoing civil war. 2022 A national report documented 875,206 people receiving ivermectin, using approximately 2.23 million tablets. 2025 Another major campaign treated more than 220,000 people in six endemic districts, achieving about 70% treatment coverage in the targeted areas. Total treatments Unlike the Africa-wide program, there is no published cumulative total of all ivermectin treatments given in Yemen since 1992. Based on the documented annual campaigns over more than 30 years, the cumulative number is in the millions of treatments, but it is not in the hundreds of millions like countries such as Nigeria or the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The available reports document individual campaign totals rather than a single lifetime cumulative figure. For perspective: Africa overall: more than 5 billion ivermectin treatments since 1987. Yemen: national program since 1992, with annual campaigns typically reaching hundreds of thousands of people rather than tens of millions. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-8" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-8" data-testid= "conversation-turn-18" data-turn="assistant"> It's understandable to find that surprising. Yemen is often thought of in terms of conflict or geopolitics, not tropical medicine. The explanation is mostly geographic and biological rather than political. Western Yemen has river valleys, fast-flowing streams, and the blackfly (Simulium) that transmits river blindness. Because the disease is present there, it naturally attracted the same tropical disease specialists who were already studying onchocerciasis in Africa. Tropical medicine is also a relatively small scientific field. Researchers often specialize in neglected tropical diseases, not in one particular country. The same scientists and institutions may work in: Yemen on river blindness (onchocerciasis), Papua New Guinea on Cyclospora and other parasitic diseases, East and West Africa on river blindness, malaria, lymphatic filariasis, and other tropical infections. Institutions such as the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, WHO, and other international research centers have historically sent researchers wherever these diseases occur. So it's common to see the same names—such as R. W. Ashford and colleagues—appear in publications from several continents. In other words, the researchers followed the diseases, not the countries. Because Yemen is the only country outside Africa where river blindness remains endemic, it became part of the same international tropical medicine network. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-9" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-9" data-testid= "conversation-turn-20" data-turn="assistant"> Here's the distinction: Blackflies (family Simuliidae) are found on every continent except Antarctica. There are more than 2,000 species of blackflies worldwide. Most do not transmit river blindness. Only certain species in the genus Simulium are important vectors of Onchocerca volvulus, the parasite that causes river blindness. Blackflies need clean, fast-flowing water to reproduce. Their larvae attach themselves to rocks, logs, and vegetation in rivers and streams. That's why river blindness became known as "river blindness." Countries with blackflies include: United States Canada United Kingdom Germany Sweden Norway Finland France Japan Australia Brazil Mexico Many countries across Africa If you've ever been fishing or hiking near a fast-moving stream and been attacked by tiny biting flies, there's a good chance they were blackflies. The reason Africa became the center of river blindness is not because Africa has blackflies and other places don't. It's because the particular blackfly species capable of transmitting Onchocerca volvulus became established there, along with the parasite itself. Yemen is the only country outside Africa where that transmission cycle persists today. One fascinating thing about this field is exactly what you noticed: it is relatively small and specialized. There are experts in tropical medicine, but only a subset spend much of their careers on diseases like river blindness. As a result, you often see the same researchers, universities, and organizations appearing over decades as they move from one endemic region to another, following where these diseases occur. "Can it be modified in the lab?" The answer is yes. Modern genetic engineering techniques such as CRISPR can, in principle, be applied to blackflies, although they are much more difficult to work with than mosquitoes because of their life cycle and breeding requirements. So the short answer is: Yes. It is biologically possible to modify a blackfly in a laboratory. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-turn="assistant"> Yes. Yemen is not unique in having major problems from blackflies. In fact, Africa has experienced by far the greatest burden. Some of the hardest-hit countries include: Nigeria – Historically the country with the largest number of people at risk. Tens of millions have required ivermectin treatment, and river blindness caused extensive blindness and skin disease before mass treatment programs. Democratic Republic of the Congo – One of the world's largest endemic areas, with many river systems supporting blackfly breeding. Cameroon – Major endemic areas, with the added complication of overlapping Loa loa infections, making ivermectin programs more challenging. Uganda – Long-running control and elimination efforts, with several transmission zones now eliminated while others required continued treatment. Ghana – Once had major river blindness foci that affected farming communities along rivers. Ethiopia – Significant endemic regions in the southwest. Sudan and South Sudan – Persistent transmission in several river basins. Outside Africa: Yemen – The only endemic country outside Africa with longstanding transmission, mainly in western river valleys. Brazil and Venezuela – Small remaining endemic focus along the border, primarily among remote Indigenous communities. Most of Latin America has eliminated river blindness. One interesting historical point is that the blackflies themselves are widespread around the world, but the combination of the right blackfly species, the Onchocerca volvulus parasite, and the local environment made Africa—and to a much smaller extent Yemen and parts of Latin America—the places where river blindness became established.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-16" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-16" data-testid= "conversation-turn-34" data-turn="assistant"> Region First recognized Notes Africa 1874–1875 Irish physician John O'Neill first described the disease in patients from the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana). Patrick Manson later recognized it was caused by a filarial worm, and early 20th-century researchers confirmed transmission by blackflies. Yemen 1940s (clinical reports), 1957 (detailed description) Early reports appeared in the 1940s. In 1957, Fawdry described the severe skin form known as sowda in western Yemen. Venezuela 1949 (first endemic focus), 1977 (new focus discovered) The first endemic focus was identified in the late 1940s. Another important endemic focus was discovered in 1977, expanding knowledge of the disease in the country. Brazil 1967 River blindness was discovered among the Yanomami people living along the Brazil–Venezuela border. It remains the only endemic focus in Brazil. One of the things that fascinated tropical medicine researchers was exactly this pattern. For well over a century, the disease was overwhelmingly concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa, with Yemen standing out as the only endemic country outside Africa in the Eastern Hemisphere, and then a handful of isolated foci in Latin America, including Venezuela and Brazil. Today, after decades of control efforts, active transmission remains primarily in Africa and Yemen, with only the Yanomami focus shared by Brazil and Venezuela still considered endemic in the Americas. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-17" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-17" data-testid= "conversation-turn-36" data-turn="assistant"> It occurs in the Amazon rainforest along the border of northern Brazil and southern Venezuela. More specifically: Brazil: State of Roraima (and a small part of Amazonas State). Venezuela: Upper Orinoco region, primarily Amazonas State. The disease occurs almost entirely among the Yanomami, an Indigenous people living in small, remote villages scattered through dense rainforest. How did it get there? This is one of the biggest questions researchers have asked. The leading scientific explanation is that river blindness did not originate in South America. Most evidence suggests it was introduced from West Africa during the trans-Atlantic slave trade, beginning in the 1500s. Infected people carried the parasite to the Americas, where compatible Simulium blackflies already existed in certain river systems. Once established, the parasite continued cycling between humans and blackflies in a handful of isolated regions. Over time, six endemic areas developed in the Americas: Mexico Guatemala Colombia Ecuador Venezuela Brazil Through decades of ivermectin treatment, Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, and Ecuador eliminated transmission, and most of Venezuela has as well. Today, the only remaining endemic transmission in the Americas is the shared Yanomami region on the Brazil–Venezuela border, largely because it is one of the most remote and difficult places in the world to reach consistently. So geographically, it's remarkable: Main global distribution: Sub-Saharan Africa. Only endemic country outside Africa in the Eastern Hemisphere: Yemen. Only remaining endemic focus in the Western Hemisphere: The remote Amazon border region inhabited by the Yanomami. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-18" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-18" data-testid= "conversation-turn-38" data-turn="assistant"> The Yanomami occupy one of the largest protected Indigenous territories on Earth. Here are the key facts: Brazilian Yanomami Indigenous Territory: 96,650 square kilometers (37,317 square miles). It was officially recognized in 1992. Combined Brazil + Venezuela homeland: approximately 190,000–192,000 square kilometers (about 73,000–74,000 square miles), making it roughly the size of the U.S. state of South Dakota or the country of Uruguay. What is on their land? The territory contains: Dense Amazon rainforest Hundreds of rivers and streams, including headwaters of the Orinoco and Rio Negro systems Mountains, including the Parima Mountains Exceptional biodiversity with thousands of plant and animal species Hundreds of Yanomami villages It is also rich in natural resources, including: Gold (the primary target of illegal miners) Tin (cassiterite) Other mineral deposits that have been explored or reported in parts of the region The gold has been the biggest source of conflict. Illegal mining has brought: mercury contamination of rivers, malaria, deforestation, violence, and pressure on Yanomami communities. It is one of the most remote inhabited regions in the world. Brazilian government sources estimate that about 98% of access is by aircraft, with very little road access. One reason this area remained the last endemic focus of river blindness in the Americas is that it is immense, heavily forested, crossed by fast-flowing rivers where blackflies breed, and extremely difficult for health teams to reach consistently. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-23" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-23" data-testid= "conversation-turn-48" data-turn="assistant"> Illegal mining is the biggest criticism today. Many Indigenous leaders and human rights organizations argue that illegal gold mining has brought malaria, mercury pollution, violence, food shortages, and disease into Yanomami territory. They say these problems—not river blindness—are now the greatest threat to the Yanomami. 2. Health care has been too inconsistent. Critics say the government has often failed to provide continuous medical care because the territory is so remote. They argue that treatment teams have sometimes been unable to reach villages regularly, especially during periods of increased illegal mining or the COVID-19 pandemic. 3. Protection of Indigenous land. Organizations such as the Hutukara Yanomami Association argue that protecting health requires protecting the territory itself. Their position is that as long as illegal miners continue to enter, health improvements will remain fragile because miners bring disease, contaminate rivers with mercury, and disrupt traditional food sources. 4. River blindness program. There has been relatively little criticism of the ivermectin campaign itself. The main challenge discussed by researchers is logistical rather than ideological: reaching hundreds of small, scattered communities across roughly 230,000 km² of rainforest often requires aircraft, boats, and long treks on foot. 5. Some researchers question long-term dependence on repeated treatment. A smaller scientific discussion concerns whether repeated ivermectin distribution alone is enough to eliminate transmission or whether additional strategies are needed. This is generally a debate about elimination strategy rather than opposition to treatment. So if you're looking at the Yanomami specifically, the criticism is not primarily "they're getting too much ivermectin." The dominant criticism is that illegal mining, weak protection of Indigenous territory, and interrupted health services have undermined both the Yanomami's health and conservation efforts. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-24" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-24" data-testid= "conversation-turn-50" data-turn="assistant"> The two timelines overlap, but river blindness came first. River blindness in the Yanomami region 1967 – River blindness is first identified among the Yanomami on the Brazil–Venezuela border. 1970s–1980s – Researchers map the endemic area and confirm ongoing transmission in remote villages. 1990 – Brazil begins regular ivermectin treatment of the Yanomami as part of the regional elimination program. Illegal mining 1975 – Geological surveys identify important mineral deposits in the region, increasing interest in mining. 1987 – A massive illegal gold rush begins. Tens of thousands of miners invade Yanomami territory. 1987–1990 – Between 30,000 and 40,000 illegal miners are estimated to have entered the territory. 1992 – Brazil officially recognizes the Yanomami Indigenous Territory and removes many miners. 2016 onward – Illegal mining surges again, contributing to malaria, mercury contamination, and a humanitarian crisis. So the sequence is: 1967: River blindness is discovered among the Yanomami. 1990: Regular ivermectin treatment begins. 1987: The major illegal mining invasion starts, between those two milestones. One important point: the illegal mining did not cause river blindness. The disease was already established in the Yanomami region decades before the gold rush. However, mining has made overall health conditions much worse by increasing malaria, polluting rivers with mercury, disrupting access to health care, and making disease control more difficult. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-25" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-25" data-testid= "conversation-turn-52" data-turn="assistant"> The biggest reason is that the medicine wasn't free until 1987. Here's the timeline: 1967 – River blindness is discovered among the Yanomami. 1970s–1980s – Researchers survey the region, map the disease, and determine how widespread it is. 1987 – Merck announces it will donate ivermectin (Mectizan) free of charge, for as long as needed. 1988–1989 – Countries begin planning national treatment programs, training health workers, obtaining WHO approval, and organizing logistics. 1990 – Brazil begins regular ivermectin distribution to the Yanomami. Even after the drug became free, there were several practical reasons it wasn't immediate: No roads. Most Yanomami villages can only be reached by aircraft, boat, or days of hiking. The population had to be mapped. Health officials first needed to identify where villages were and estimate how many people required treatment. Approval and planning. Brazil had to establish a national program with WHO, PAHO, and the Mectizan Donation Program. Logistics. Delivering medicine twice a year into one of the most remote rainforests on Earth required aircraft, pilots, medical teams, translators, and a reliable supply chain. So the roughly three-year gap between 1987 and 1990 was not considered unusual. It reflected the time needed to organize a program in an extremely remote region after the donation program was launched. The longer gap—from 1967 to 1987—is explained largely by the fact that ivermectin did not yet exist as a treatment. Before ivermectin, there was no practical, safe medicine that could be distributed repeatedly on a mass scale to entire communities. That changed with Merck's donation program in 1987. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-21" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-21" data-testid= "conversation-turn-44" data-turn="assistant"> Yes. The Merck/Mectizan donation program absolutely extends to the Yanomami region. In fact, the Yanomami Focus Area on the Brazil–Venezuela border is the last remaining endemic focus of river blindness in the Americas, so it has become one of the program's highest priorities. Here are some remarkable facts: The program has operated with Brazil's Ministry of Health since 1990 to treat the Yanomami. By 2023, the program had donated more than 2 million ivermectin treatments for the Brazilian Yanomami program alone. The target population is only about 18,850 Indigenous people on the Brazilian side, which shows how many repeated treatments have been required over more than 30 years. The combined Yanomami Focus Area (Brazil and Venezuela) includes about 35,000 people. Health workers travel by helicopter, fixed-wing aircraft, boat, and weeks on foot through dense rainforest to deliver ivermectin twice each year. This is one of the most difficult public health operations in the world. The teams have to contend with: Dense Amazon rainforest. Virtually no roads. Rivers and mountains. Illegal gold miners. Wildlife. Communities that may only be reachable after days or weeks of travel. So when people hear that Merck has donated more than 5 billion treatments, it includes not only large-scale campaigns in countries like Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but also extraordinary efforts to reach small, isolated populations like the Yanomami in the Amazon. Even though the Yanomami population is relatively small, their remote location has made them one of the most challenging groups to serve. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-22" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-22" data-testid= "conversation-turn-46" data-turn="assistant"> Yes. There are documented cases of river blindness among the Yanomami, and that is precisely why the region remains the last endemic focus in the Americas. Some key facts: The Yanomami focus includes about 700+ villages scattered across roughly 230,000 km² of rainforest on the Brazil–Venezuela border. Around 28,000–40,000 Yanomami (depending on the year and estimate) continue to require regular ivermectin treatment because transmission has not yet been interrupted. Before mass ivermectin campaigns, researchers documented skin disease, eye lesions, and some cases of blindness caused by onchocerciasis among Yanomami communities. Today, the goal is to prevent new blindness by treating everyone every six months, rather than waiting for severe disease to develop. The reason this region remains endemic is not because the disease is unusually severe there, but because it is extraordinarily difficult to eliminate. The Yanomami are highly mobile, living in small communities spread across dense rainforest, often reachable only by aircraft, boat, or long treks on foot. Missing even a portion of the population can allow transmission to continue. One encouraging point is that mass blindness on the scale once seen in parts of West Africa has largely been prevented in the Yanomami region because of decades of repeated ivermectin treatment. The challenge now is eliminating the parasite completely so the treatments are no longer needed. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-22" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-22" data-testid= "conversation-turn-46" data-turn="assistant"> Yes. There are documented cases of river blindness among the Yanomami, and that is precisely why the region remains the last endemic focus in the Americas. Some key facts: The Yanomami focus includes about 700+ villages scattered across roughly 230,000 km² of rainforest on the Brazil–Venezuela border. Around 28,000–40,000 Yanomami (depending on the year and estimate) continue to require regular ivermectin treatment because transmission has not yet been interrupted. Before mass ivermectin campaigns, researchers documented skin disease, eye lesions, and some cases of blindness caused by onchocerciasis among Yanomami communities. Today, the goal is to prevent new blindness by treating everyone every six months, rather than waiting for severe disease to develop. The reason this region remains endemic is not because the disease is unusually severe there, but because it is extraordinarily difficult to eliminate. The Yanomami are highly mobile, living in small communities spread across dense rainforest, often reachable only by aircraft, boat, or long treks on foot. Missing even a portion of the population can allow transmission to continue. One encouraging point is that mass blindness on the scale once seen in parts of West Africa has largely been prevented in the Yanomami region because of decades of repeated ivermectin treatment. The challenge now is eliminating the parasite completely so the treatments are no longer needed. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-19" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-19" data-testid= "conversation-turn-40" data-turn="assistant"> There are many people and organizations trying to help the Yanomami remain on their ancestral land. The situation is mixed: there has been measurable progress since Brazil declared a health emergency in 2023, but serious problems remain. The main groups working to protect the Yanomami include: The Brazilian government, which has increased medical care and carried out operations against illegal gold miners. FUNAI, Brazil's Indigenous affairs agency. Indigenous organizations such as the Hutukara Yanomami Association, led by Yanomami leaders including Davi Kopenawa. NGOs including the Rainforest Foundation US, Greenpeace, and others that support health care, land monitoring, and legal protection. There has been real progress: Illegal mining has declined substantially since 2023 because of enforcement operations. Forest destruction from mining has fallen compared with its peak. More doctors, nurses, medicines, and food have reached many villages than during the height of the humanitarian crisis. Malnutrition deaths have decreased from their 2023 levels. However, the crisis is not over. The biggest continuing problems are: Illegal gold miners continue to enter parts of the territory despite government crackdowns. Some have changed tactics and moved into more remote areas. Malaria remains a major health problem because mining creates pools of standing water where mosquitoes breed. Other diseases, including river blindness, still affect some communities, especially in the remote Brazil–Venezuela border region. Mercury pollution from illegal gold mining contaminates rivers used for drinking, fishing, and cooking. Many villages remain extremely difficult to reach, making it hard to provide continuous medical care. So the overall picture is that the Yanomami are not being abandoned. There is an ongoing effort by the Brazilian government, Indigenous organizations, and international groups to help them stay on their land and improve their health. At the same time, they continue to face persistent threats from illegal mining, malaria, environmental contamination, and the logistical challenge of delivering health care across one of the most remote rainforest regions in the world. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-turn="assistant"> The major human disease The one that made blackflies famous is river blindness. For humans, this is by far the most important disease transmitted by blackflies. It has infected tens of millions of people over the last century and led to the world's largest ivermectin donation program. They also cause direct injury Even without transmitting disease, blackflies can be a serious problem. Large swarms can cause: Severe itching Swelling Bleeding bites Allergic reactions "Black fly fever" (a reaction with fever, headache, nausea, and swollen lymph nodes caused by numerous bites) In livestock, massive blackfly attacks have occasionally killed cattle or horses through blood loss and toxic reactions from thousands of bites. Compared with mosquitoes One interesting fact is how specialized they are. Mosquitoes transmit malaria, dengue, yellow fever, Zika, West Nile, chikungunya, several forms of encephalitis, lymphatic filariasis, and many other diseases. Ticks transmit Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, tularemia, Powassan virus, and others. Blackflies are overwhelmingly associated with one major human disease—river blindness. That specialization is one reason river blindness became such a distinct field within tropical medicine. Many researchers spend decades studying the biology of a single parasite (Onchocerca volvulus) and its relationship with a relatively small number of blackfly species. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-9" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-9" data-testid= "conversation-turn-20" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-11" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-11" data-testid= "conversation-turn-24" data-turn="assistant"> Who discovered them? No single person "discovered" blackflies because people had been bitten by them for thousands of years. The scientific story began in the 1700s. 1758 – Carl Linnaeus published the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, laying the foundation for modern insect classification. At the time, blackflies were not yet well distinguished from other small flies. 1802 – French entomologist Pierre André Latreille established the genus Simulium, which is still the principal genus used for blackflies today. 1800s – European entomologists gradually described dozens of blackfly species as microscopes improved and insect classification became more sophisticated. When did people realize they spread disease? For centuries, blackflies were simply considered painful biting insects. The breakthrough came in Africa. 1874–1875 – Irish physician John O'Neill first described the tiny worms in skin nodules of patients in West Africa. 1893 – Scottish physician Patrick Manson recognized that the disease was caused by a filarial worm, Onchocerca volvulus. Early 1900s – Researchers suspected blackflies were the vector because the disease occurred near fast-flowing rivers where these insects were abundant. 1915–1920s – Field studies confirmed that certain Simulium blackflies transmit the parasite between humans. Why was this such a difficult discovery? Unlike mosquitoes, blackflies are: only 2–5 millimeters long, active mainly during the day, breed only in fast-flowing streams and rivers, and there are thousands of similar-looking species. It took decades of fieldwork, microscopy, and parasite studies to determine which species could actually transmit river blindness. Today Scientists recognize: More than 2,000 species of blackflies worldwide. Most are simply nuisance biters. Only a relatively small number of Simulium species can transmit Onchocerca volvulus, the parasite responsible for river blindness. One interesting historical point is that the insect was known long before the disease was understood. People had been bitten by blackflies for thousands of years, but it wasn't until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that scientists connected certain blackflies to one of the world's most important tropical diseases. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-10" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:40a392e2-1801-4369-99ff-c3cf2b4cdef8-10" data-testid= "conversation-turn-22" data-turn="assistant"> Here's why only certain blackflies can transmit Onchocerca volvulus: The parasite has to survive inside the fly. When a blackfly bites an infected person, it ingests tiny baby worms (microfilariae). In most blackfly species, those larvae simply die because the fly's body is not a suitable environment. The parasite must develop inside the fly. In a compatible Simulium species, the larvae migrate through the fly's body, develop over about a week into an infectious stage, and then move to the fly's mouthparts. The fly must bite humans frequently. Some blackflies prefer birds, cattle, or other animals. The species that efficiently spread river blindness preferentially feed on humans, making transmission much more likely. The ecology has to match. The fly must breed in fast-flowing rivers where humans also live, farm, fish, or collect water. If the fly and people rarely come into contact, transmission doesn't continue. So it's not just "a blackfly." It's a very specific combination: the right parasite, the right blackfly species, the right environment, and regular contact with humans. This is actually common in parasitology. Many parasites have very specific vectors. For example: Malaria parasites are transmitted by certain Anopheles mosquitoes, not all mosquitoes. Lyme disease is spread by certain Ixodes ticks, not all ticks. Dengue is spread mainly by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, not every mosquito. River blindness is similar. Out of more than 2,000 blackfly species, only a relatively small number are capable of maintaining the complete life cycle of Onchocerca volvulus. One of the remarkable aspects of this disease is that scientists still don't know every molecular detail of why one blackfly species is a competent vector while a closely related species is not. They understand the overall life cycle well, but the exact genetic and biochemical interactions that make some flies susceptible and others resistant remain an active area of research. That is one reason river blindness has remained such a specialized field of tropical medicine. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-14" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-14" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-turn="assistant"> Why Cyclospora and River Blindness Remain So Difficult Cyclospora and river blindness belong to the same broad world of tropical parasitology, but they present almost opposite scientific problems. Cyclospora is microscopic and comparatively short-lived in a patient, yet scientists still cannot routinely grow it in a laboratory or reproduce its complete infection in an animal. River blindness is caused by a large parasitic worm that scientists can examine at different life stages, but the worm lives for more than a decade and requires both a mammal and a blackfly to complete its life cycle. The result is that both diseases have treatments and decades of research behind them, yet neither behaves like a familiar bacterial infection that can be grown overnight, exposed to hundreds of drugs, and quickly traced to its source. 1. Cyclospora: difficult to obtain and difficult to reproduce What Cyclospora is Cyclospora cayetanensis is a single-celled intestinal parasite. Humans are currently considered its only known host. The parasite reproduces inside cells lining the human intestine, and infected people pass immature oocysts in their feces. Those oocysts must remain outside the body—usually for at least one or two weeks under suitable environmental conditions—before becoming infectious. That environmental stage explains why immediate person-to-person spread is considered unlikely. Someone does not normally become infected directly from a freshly contaminated bathroom surface; the organism first has to mature in the environment. Why Cyclospora is so difficult to study The single greatest obstacle is that researchers still lack a dependable laboratory supply of the organism. There is no established animal model and no routine in-vitro or in-vivo culture system that continuously produces Cyclospora oocysts. Researchers usually must obtain organisms from stool donated by naturally infected people. Those samples may contain limited numbers of oocysts and require difficult purification before experiments can begin. That creates a chain of problems: Scientists cannot easily grow more organisms. With bacteria, one patient sample can sometimes generate millions or billions of organisms in culture. With Cyclospora, the supply may end when the human stool sample is exhausted. Drug screening is restricted. Researchers cannot conveniently expose identical cultures to hundreds or thousands of possible treatments. Its full life cycle remains partly hidden. Much of what is known about its development inside humans comes from a small number of intestinal biopsy specimens. Human infectivity is difficult to measure. In a 2004 pilot study, seven volunteers swallowed preparations containing Cyclospora oocysts, but none developed detectable infection. That did not prove the parasite was harmless; it demonstrated how difficult it was to know whether the available organisms were mature, viable and infectious. Why Cyclospora infections can persist In an untreated person, the parasite can continue reproducing inside intestinal cells. Symptoms may improve and then return, producing the characteristic relapsing illness. Persistence is also helped by practical problems: Cyclospora is not always included in routine stool testing. Shedding may vary, so several stool specimens may be needed. Symptoms can resemble other gastrointestinal illnesses. Some patients are not tested until they have been ill for weeks. The principal treatment, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, cannot be taken safely by every patient. This is very different from the persistence of river blindness. Cyclospora does not normally live in one patient for 10 or 15 years. Its difficulty lies more in diagnosis, environmental detection, research access and interruption of food or water contamination. Why Cyclospora is difficult to find on food The parasite may be unevenly scattered across a large shipment of produce. Contamination levels can be extremely low, yet still sufficient to cause illness. The organism cannot be enriched by growing it in culture after it is recovered from food. A molecular test can detect Cyclospora DNA, but DNA detection does not automatically prove that the organism was alive or infectious. A negative food sample also does not prove that the shipment was never contaminated because investigators may simply have sampled an uncontaminated portion. This explains why outbreak investigations often depend heavily on interviews, purchase records and traceback rather than on finding the parasite in a particular food sample. 2. Cyclospora progress over nearly 50 years 1977–1979: first observations The earliest recognized human cases occurred in Papua New Guinea during the late 1970s. In 1979, R. W. Ashford published a description of an unidentified coccidian-like organism in human patients. At that point, researchers could see the organism, but they did not know exactly what it was. 1980s–1994: identity gradually established Similar organisms were reported in people with prolonged diarrhea in several countries. It was initially confused with cyanobacteria and other parasites. By the early 1990s, researchers established that it was a coccidian parasite, and the name Cyclospora cayetanensis became accepted. Mid-1990s: major foodborne outbreaks Large outbreaks associated with imported fresh produce demonstrated that Cyclospora was not merely an obscure tropical infection. The outbreaks forced public-health agencies to develop better surveillance and food-investigation methods. By 1999, CDC scientists were still describing Cyclospora as an "enigma," noting major gaps in knowledge about environmental survival and detection. 2000s: improved clinical diagnosis Microscopy improved, and molecular methods such as polymerase chain reaction allowed laboratories to detect Cyclospora DNA more specifically. Multiplex gastrointestinal test panels later made clinical diagnosis easier in laboratories that used them. However, improved diagnosis did not solve the central research problem: scientists still could not continuously cultivate the organism. 2010s: food testing improves FDA developed and validated molecular methods for finding Cyclospora in selected high-risk produce. A validated FDA method was evaluated and published in 2018. This was substantial progress because investigators could search directly for Cyclospora DNA on produce rather than relying exclusively on patient interviews. But it did not become an easy universal test. Different foods contain substances that interfere with DNA extraction, and mixed foods such as salsa present additional problems. 2019–2026: coordinated research and genotyping FDA established a dedicated Cyclospora task force in 2019 and developed a multiyear prevention, response and research plan. Researchers have also worked on genotyping methods intended to compare Cyclospora found in patients, food, water or soil. FDA stated that these methods were being developed to characterize organisms from produce, mixed foods and environmental samples. Environmental experiments have begun clarifying how moisture, temperature, soil and plant surfaces affect persistence. FDA-associated research has found that detection can continue for extended periods under moist conditions, although these experiments still do not amount to a complete culture system. Bottom line after almost five decades Since the first published description in 1979, scientists have made major progress in: identifying the organism; diagnosing patients; detecting its DNA on some foods; recognizing outbreaks; tracing implicated supply chains; sequencing and comparing parasite DNA. But after approximately 47 years, researchers still lack the central tool that would transform the field: a dependable continuous culture system or animal model. That is why Cyclospora remains unusually difficult. 3. River blindness: a long-lived worm with two hosts What causes it River blindness is caused by Onchocerca volvulus, a filarial roundworm. An infected blackfly bites a person and deposits immature larvae. Those larvae develop into adult worms inside nodules beneath the skin. Adult females produce enormous numbers of microscopic larvae called microfilariae. These migrate through the skin and eyes. When another blackfly takes a blood meal, it ingests microfilariae, which develop further inside the fly and can then infect another person. The serious itching, skin injury and eye damage are caused largely by inflammatory reactions to dying microfilariae. Why the worm is difficult to study The full life cycle requires: a suitable mammalian host; mature male and female worms; production of microfilariae; a competent Simulium blackfly; development inside that fly; transmission back to another mammal. That cannot be reproduced quickly in an ordinary laboratory flask. Adult worms mature very slowly. Work with the closely related cattle parasite Onchocerca ochengi indicates that development into fully mature, fertile adults can take roughly 279–532 days after infection. Human infection models present obvious ethical obstacles. Chimpanzees were previously used in research, but infections could persist for six to nine years, making experiments extraordinarily slow and costly. Researchers have therefore depended on: worms removed from human nodules; related parasites in cattle or rodents; isolated life stages maintained temporarily in culture; specialized mouse models; artificial tissue and skin models. These tools are useful, but none perfectly duplicates the complete natural human-blackfly cycle. Why river blindness persists in an individual Adult worms may survive in nodules for approximately 10–15 years or longer, and fertile females can release microfilariae through much of that period. Ivermectin is highly effective at removing microfilariae and temporarily suppressing their production. This reduces itching, eye injury and transmission. But ivermectin generally does not rapidly kill all adult worms. Once its suppressive effect diminishes, surviving females can resume releasing microfilariae. That is why WHO recommends repeated treatment at least annually for approximately 10–15 years in many settings—long enough to outlast the reproductive life of the adult worms and interrupt transmission. Why river blindness persists in a region Even excellent medicine cannot eliminate transmission unless enough people receive it repeatedly. Persistence is encouraged by: adult worms surviving for many years; people missing treatment rounds; remote communities being difficult to reach; blackflies traveling across borders; conflict and population movement; incomplete mapping of endemic communities; reinfection after treatment; concern about severe reactions where very high Loa loa microfilarial loads coexist. WHO notes that Loa loa co-endemicity can require modified treatment strategies because ivermectin can cause severe adverse events in heavily infected individuals. Thus, the difficulty is not merely inventing a medicine. It is maintaining a functioning delivery and surveillance system for decades. 4. River-blindness progress over more than 50 years Before the 1970s Scientists had already identified the worm, the blackfly vector and the relationship between infection, skin disease and blindness. However, control was limited and enormous West African river basins remained heavily affected. 1974–2002: attacking the blackfly The Onchocerciasis Control Programme began in West Africa in 1974. Its initial strategy was predominantly aerial spraying of insecticides into rivers to kill blackfly larvae. The programme operated until 2002 and brought the disease under control across much of the original 11-country area. This was an immense technical achievement, but it required aircraft, repeated surveillance, insecticides, international financing and cross-border coordination. 1987–1989: ivermectin changes the strategy Merck announced the ivermectin donation in 1987, and large-scale distribution was incorporated into African control efforts by approximately 1989. Ivermectin allowed programs to treat people directly rather than relying only on blackfly control. Its limitation remained clear: it was mainly a microfilaricide, not a reliably rapid killer of adult worms. 1990s–2015: community-directed treatment expands The African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control operated from 1995 to 2015 and extended treatment into countries not covered by the original West African programme. Community-directed distribution allowed residents to organize local ivermectin delivery rather than relying solely on visiting medical teams. Late 1990s–2000s: Wolbachia becomes a treatment target Researchers discovered that adult filarial worms depend heavily on intracellular Wolbachia bacteria. Courses of doxycycline that remove Wolbachia can sterilize female worms and gradually kill or permanently disable many adult worms. Early WHO research summaries reported that a six-week doxycycline regimen produced adult-worm sterility. This was a major biological advance because it offered a way to attack the adult stage. Its limitation is operational: a four- to six-week antibiotic course is far harder to deliver to entire populations than a single dose of ivermectin. Doxycycline is also unsuitable for some groups, including young children and pregnant women. 2018 onward: moxidectin and improved suppression Moxidectin was developed as another treatment capable of suppressing microfilariae for longer than ivermectin in many patients. WHO-associated researchers had been investigating it since the late 1990s. It offers another tool but does not entirely solve the problem of rapidly eliminating every adult worm. 2013–2025: national elimination becomes real WHO verified elimination in: Colombia in 2013; Ecuador in 2014; Mexico in 2015; Guatemala in 2016; Niger in 2025. Niger became the first African country verified as having eliminated transmission. As of the end of 2024, WHO reported that approximately 25.5 million people lived in African areas where transmission had fallen sufficiently for ivermectin treatment to stop. That is enormous progress, but it also demonstrates the timescale: Niger's achievement followed more than 40 years of sustained control work. 5. The most important difference Cyclospora is persistent mainly as a scientific and food-safety mystery. Researchers can treat most diagnosed patients, but they cannot easily: produce the organism; test its infectivity; determine whether food-associated oocysts are alive; reproduce its complete life cycle; identify every contaminated source. River blindness is persistent mainly as a biological and delivery problem. Researchers understand much of its life cycle and have effective medicines, but: adult worms live for more than a decade; ivermectin does not quickly remove them; blackflies continue transmission; treatment must reach whole communities repeatedly; elimination must be confirmed through years of surveillance. 6. Side-by-side conclusion Question Cyclospora River blindness Organism Single-celled protozoan Multicellular filarial worm Main host problem Humans are the only confirmed host Requires humans and blackflies Can it be continuously cultured? No dependable continuous system Complete cycle is not routinely maintained Why infection persists Ongoing intestinal replication, delayed diagnosis, relapse Adult worms survive 10–15 years or longer Main treatment problem Only one clearly established first-line drug; limited alternatives Ivermectin mainly controls young worms, not all adults Main research obstacle Cannot reliably produce oocysts Life cycle is extremely slow and host-dependent Years of modern research Roughly 47 years since 1979 description More than 50 years of organized international control Major achievement Better diagnosis, DNA detection and outbreak tracing Control across large regions and verified national elimination Central unsolved problem Culture system and reliable viability testing Short-course, safe treatment that rapidly kills adult worms Final assessment Neither disease is scientifically hopeless. Cyclospora research has advanced from an unidentified object under a microscope to molecular detection, food testing and genetic analysis. But scientists still cannot grow it reliably, which keeps basic questions unanswered after nearly half a century. River-blindness research has produced one of the largest and most successful parasite-control campaigns in history. Entire countries have eliminated transmission. But the biology of a 10- to 15-year adult worm means success has required decades of uninterrupted drug delivery, vector control and outside support. That is what makes these two parasites stand out: the scientific community has made genuine progress, but neither organism has yielded to the ordinary laboratory and treatment methods used against many bacteria and viruses. There are several parasites that have historically been difficult to study because of complex life cycles or limited laboratory models. Examples include: Cyclospora cayetanensis Onchocerca volvulus (river blindness) Plasmodium vivax (one form of malaria, more difficult to culture than P. falciparum) Cryptosporidium (another protozoan parasite that long challenged laboratory cultivation) Loa loa (African eye worm) What makes Cyclospora stand out is that for many years there was no simple, continuous laboratory culture system, which slowed work on diagnostics, drug screening, and understanding its biology. What makes Onchocerca stand out is that it is a long-lived worm with a complicated life cycle involving both humans and blackflies, making laboratory research inherently difficult. One thing you've probably noticed is that researchers working on tropical parasites often say things like: "We still don't have a good laboratory model." "The life cycle is difficult to reproduce." "The organism cannot be easily cultured." "Drug discovery has been slower than for bacteria." You don't hear those statements nearly as often in fields like E. coli, Staphylococcus, or influenza research, where laboratory systems are much more established. So your observation is a reasonable one: within tropical parasitology, Cyclospora and river blindness are among the organisms that have posed particularly persistent technical challenges. The reasons differ, but both have required decades of work because their biology is much more complex than many familiar bacterial pathogens. Discovered in the late-1970s, the pioneering drug ivermectin, a dihydro derivative of avermectin—originating solely from a single microorganism isolated at the Kitasato Intitute, Tokyo, Japan from Japanese soil—has had an immeasurably beneficial impact in improving the lives and welfare of billions of people throughout the world. Originally introduced as a veterinary drug, it kills a wide range of internal and external parasites in commercial livestock and companion animals. It was quickly discovered to be ideal in combating two of the world's most devastating and disfiguring diseases which have plagued the world's poor throughout the tropics for centuries. It is now being used free-of-charge as the sole tool in campaigns to eliminate both diseases globally. It has also been used to successfully overcome several other human diseases and new uses for it are continually being found. This paper looks in depth at the events surrounding ivermectin's passage from being a huge success in Animal Health into its widespread use in humans, a development which has led many to describe it as a "wonder" drug.   In the early-1970s, the disease was endemic in 34 countries: 27 in Africa; 6 in the Americas; and 1 in the Arabian Peninsula. The World Health Organization (WHO) later estimated that 17.7 million people were infected worldwide, of whom some 270,000 were blind, and another 500,000 severely visually disabled. The burden of onchocerciasis was particularly extreme in the hyper-endemic belt across sub-Saharan Africa. Communities in these areas exhibited high rates of visual disability caused by Onchocerciasis, up to 40% in some areas, which caused immeasurable negative impact on individual and community health, reducing economic capacity and productivity, and leading to the abandonment of fertile agricultural lands.19)By 1973, Onchocerciasis had been recognised by the then head of the World Bank, Robert McNamara, as a major disease of massive health and socioeconomic importance and one in dire need of combating in West Africa, and he became the key agent for change. In 1974, following international recognition of the dramatic consequences of disabling and disfiguring Onchocerciasis in Africa, four United Nations agencies, including the World Bank, launched the Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa (OCP). The programme covered 1.2 million km2, protecting 30 million people in 11 countries from River Blindness. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> Here's the timeline: Year Role Significance 1916 Born San Francisco, California 1940s U.S. Army Air Forces Worked on statistical bombing analysis during World War II. 1946 Ford Motor Company One of the "Whiz Kids" who modernized Ford using statistical management. 1961–1968 Robert McNamara Principal architect of U.S. strategy during the Vietnam War under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson. 1968–1981 World Bank President Shifted attention toward poverty reduction, agriculture, population, and tropical diseases. 1974 Onchocerciasis Control Programme Helped secure World Bank support for one of history's largest public health campaigns. Why "McNamara's Morons"? The nickname "McNamara's Morons" referred to Project 100,000, begun in 1966. McNamara believed the military could both increase manpower and provide disadvantaged young men with education and job skills. The standards for enlistment were lowered so thousands of men who previously would have been rejected could enter the armed forces. The program ultimately enlisted about 354,000 men. Critics argued that: many recruits had intellectual disabilities or very low aptitude scores; they suffered disproportionately high casualties in Vietnam; the promised educational and career benefits often failed to materialize. The phrase "McNamara's Morons" was coined by critics of the policy and is now widely regarded as derogatory. Then comes a very different chapter After leaving the Pentagon in 1968, McNamara became President of the World Bank. This is where his reputation becomes much more complicated. During the 1970s he argued that economic development could not succeed if major tropical diseases kept millions of people trapped in poverty. One disease he repeatedly highlighted was onchocerciasis (river blindness). At the time: approximately 30 million people were living in endemic areas of West Africa; fertile river valleys were being abandoned because of blackfly transmission; blindness and severe skin disease reduced agricultural productivity and economic development. McNamara viewed river blindness as both: a humanitarian catastrophe, and a major obstacle to economic development. That perspective fit the World Bank's mission because healthier populations were seen as essential for long-term growth. The 1974 Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) In 1974, four major international organizations launched the OCP: World Bank World Health Organization Food and Agriculture Organization United Nations Development Programme The initial program covered approximately: 1.2 million square kilometers 11 West African countries roughly 30 million people Early control relied almost entirely on aerial larviciding—spraying rivers to kill blackfly larvae before ivermectin became available. When Merck announced the donation of ivermectin in 1987, the program expanded dramatically because treatment of people could be combined with vector control. A remarkable contrast McNamara's legacy illustrates how the same individual can be remembered in very different ways depending on the context. Vietnam historians often focus on escalation of the war, systems analysis, body-count metrics, and Project 100,000. Global health historians often emphasize his role in bringing World Bank resources to neglected tropical diseases, including river blindness. Both are well-documented parts of his historical record. So when you see his name in the history of onchocerciasis, it reflects a later phase of his career—after the Vietnam War—when he used the World Bank's financial influence to support large-scale international development and disease-control programs. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-turn="assistant"> Yes. McNamara's legacy is one of the most debated of any major American public official because it includes both the Vietnam War and later global development work. Broadly speaking, historians and commentators tend to fall into a few perspectives: Critics argue that his role in escalating the Vietnam War and policies such as Project 100,000 caused immense suffering. For many veterans and families, those decisions dominate his legacy. Supporters of his later work point to his leadership at the World Bank, where he expanded lending for poverty reduction, agriculture, education, and public health. They credit him with helping bring international attention and funding to diseases such as river blindness. Many historians hold both views simultaneously. They acknowledge that his World Bank work likely benefited millions of people while also concluding that his Vietnam-era decisions contributed to a costly and controversial war. The Onchocerciasis Control Programme is often cited as one of the World Bank's major public health successes. McNamara's advocacy helped secure political and financial support at a time when river blindness received relatively little international attention. However, that achievement has not erased the controversy surrounding his earlier career. McNamara himself reflected publicly on Vietnam later in life. In his 1995 memoir, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, he wrote that the United States had been "wrong, terribly wrong" in key aspects of its approach to the war. Some people viewed this as a meaningful acknowledgment of mistakes; others felt it came far too late and did not amount to full accountability. In short, it is fair to say that many people view his support for global health initiatives—including the fight against river blindness—as a significant positive contribution. At the same time, many also believe that those accomplishments do not outweigh or erase the consequences of his decisions during the Vietnam War. Those two assessments often coexist in discussions of his historical legacy.   Before McNamara: The World Bank focused largely on large infrastructure projects such as dams, power plants, highways, and ports. Annual lending was much smaller. Health and poverty reduction were not major priorities. During McNamara's presidency (1968–1981): World Bank lending expanded several-fold. Lending increasingly targeted Sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture, rural development, education, public health, and population programs became central priorities. The Bank became involved in major disease-control initiatives, including the 1974 Onchocerciasis Control Programme. In that sense, many historians describe McNamara as having redirected the World Bank toward developing countries, particularly Africa. At the same time, the World Bank was only one source of international finance. During roughly the same period, countries also received funding from: the IMF, bilateral aid agencies such as USAID and the UK's development agencies, former colonial powers, the United Nations, and later regional institutions such as the African Development Bank. One of the interesting historical questions—which economists and historians continue to debate—is whether the rapid expansion of development lending produced long-term self-sustaining growth or whether it also contributed to long-term debt dependence in some countries. So a fair historical summary would be: Robert McNamara was a pivotal figure in expanding World Bank lending to Africa and making poverty reduction, agriculture, education, and health central priorities. His tenure marked a major increase in international development financing for the region, although the long-term outcomes remain debated, with some countries experiencing significant gains and others later facing persistent debt challenges. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ca488f54-9cab-4a1d-a6a4-0f95bb82b4f1-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-turn="assistant"> The World Bank was created in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and officially began operations in 1946. Here's the timeline: 1944 – Delegates from 44 Allied nations establish the World Bank (originally the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, or IBRD) at the Bretton Woods Conference. 1946 – The World Bank begins lending, initially to help rebuild Europe after World War II. 1947 – Its first loan goes to France for postwar reconstruction. 1968 – Robert McNamara becomes the fifth President of the World Bank, after resigning as U.S. Secretary of Defense. 1968–1981 – McNamara dramatically expands the Bank's size and shifts much of its focus toward poverty reduction, agriculture, education, health, and infrastructure in developing countries. Drug donation For over a decade, OCP operations were exclusively based on the spraying of insecticides by helicopters and aircraft over the breeding sites of vector blackflies in order to kill their larvae. Following the registration of ivermectin (produced under the brand name Mectizan®) for human use in 1987, in a hitherto unprecedented move and with unheralded commitment, Mectizan® was donated by the manufacturing company, Merck & Co. Inc., to treat onchocerciasis in all endemic countries for as long as it was needed. The resultant drug donation programme was the first, largest, longest running and most successful of all—and proved a model for all others that have followed. Ivermectin began to be distributed in 1988, with operations being organized through the independent Mectizan Donation Program (MDP) established and funded by Merck. Thereafter, OCP control operations changed from exclusive vector control to larviciding combined with ivermectin treatment or, in some areas, to ivermectin treatment alone. Ivermectin swiftly became the drug of choice for the treatment of Onchocerciasis due to its unique and potent microfilaricidal effects, the absence of severe side effects and its excellent safety. It is now the sole tool being used in disease elimination campaigns in the 16 other African countries where the disease exists, orchestrated by the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC), which commenced operations in 1996. A single annual dose of 150 µg/kg of ivermectin, given orally, can reduce the level of skin microfilariae to zero and, by interfering with worm embryogenesis, can delay the build-up of new microfilariae for a period of up to two years. OCP was closed in December 2002 after virtually stopping disease transmission in all target nations except Sierra Leone where operations were hampered by civil war. The process, from the discovery of ivermectin's activity against onchocercal microfilariae to the successful distribution programme from 1988 onward, was neither an easy or direct path. Success was achieved through groundbreaking and innovative partnerships. The journey was a complex undertaking, incorporating scientific uncertainty, conflicting views, ambiguity, frustration, individual innovation and unexpected twists and turns. The actual discovery of ivermectin was an international team effort involving a unique, pioneering Public Sector/Private Sector partnership and the commitment and vision of several key individuals. Ivermectin's development into a drug for human use also involved a number of organizational, individual and pharmacological variables—together with a large slice of luck, educated insight and personal commitment.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-turn="assistant"> Onchocerciasis The origins of ivermectin as a human drug are inextricably linked with Onchocerciasis (or River Blindness), a chronic human filarial disease caused by infection with Onchocerca volvulus worms. The parasites are transmitted via the bite of infected blackflies of the genus Simulium, which breed in highly-oxygenated, fast-flowing rivers and watercourses. In the human body, immature larval forms of the parasite create nodules in subcutaneous tissue, where they mature into adult worms. After mating, female worms can release up to 1000 microfilariae a day for some 10–14 years. These move through the body, and when they die they cause a variety of conditions, including skin rashes, lesions, intense itching, oedema and skin depigmentation (Fig. 2 ). Microfilariae also invade the eye, causing visual impairment and loss of vision, onchocerciasis being the second leading cause of blindness caused by an infectious disease.17) The disease causes visual damage for some 1–2 million people, around half of who will become blind.18) *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-turn="assistant"> Timeline: How Ivermectin Was Discovered 1940s–1950s Scientists discover that soil microorganisms produce powerful natural chemicals. The discovery of antibiotics such as streptomycin convinces researchers that soil is a rich source of new medicines. 1950s–1960s Research laboratories around the world begin collecting thousands of soil samples. The goal is not to find a cure for river blindness, but to discover any microorganism capable of producing useful compounds, including antibiotics and antiparasitic drugs. 1965 Dr. Satoshi Ōmura joins the Kitasato Institute in Tokyo, Japan. He specializes in isolating new species of Streptomyces bacteria from soil. Late 1960s–Early 1970s Ōmura and his team collect soil samples from across Japan, including parks, fields, mountains, and golf courses. Thousands of microorganisms are isolated and grown in the laboratory. Most prove to be unremarkable, but a small number appear promising. Early 1970s One soil sample collected near a golf course in Kawana, Shizuoka Prefecture, contains a previously unknown Streptomyces species. Ōmura identifies it as one of the most interesting organisms in his collection. 1973 Ōmura sends selected bacterial cultures to researchers at Merck & Co. in the United States, where parasitologist William C. Campbell is searching for new drugs to combat parasites in livestock. At this point, the objective is entirely veterinary medicine. Farmers lose billions of dollars worldwide because parasitic worms reduce the health and productivity of cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and other animals. 1974–1975 Campbell's laboratory discovers that one of Ōmura's bacterial cultures produces an extraordinarily powerful compound against parasitic worms. The compound is named avermectin. 1978 Merck scientists chemically modify avermectin to improve its safety and effectiveness. The new compound is named ivermectin. 1981 Ivermectin is introduced as a veterinary medicine. It rapidly becomes one of the most successful antiparasitic drugs ever developed for cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, and companion animals because it controls a wide variety of internal and external parasites. Early 1980s Researchers begin asking whether ivermectin might also work against human parasitic diseases. Studies focus on river blindness (Onchocerca volvulus), a disease affecting millions in Africa and parts of Latin America. 1987 Merck announces that it will donate ivermectin, marketed as Mectizan, free of charge for as long as necessary to treat river blindness. The Mectizan Donation Program begins and eventually becomes one of the largest pharmaceutical donation programs in history. 1998 The donation program expands to include efforts to eliminate lymphatic filariasis in countries where ivermectin is an appropriate treatment. 2015 Satoshi Ōmura and William C. Campbell receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery and development of avermectin and ivermectin, recognizing work that has transformed the treatment of parasitic diseases in both animals and humans. The Key Point The original research had nothing to do with river blindness. Ōmura was searching Japanese soil for microorganisms that produced biologically active compounds. Campbell was searching for new medicines to protect livestock from parasitic worms. Only after ivermectin proved extraordinarily effective in animals did researchers investigate whether it could also treat human diseases. That unexpected progression eventually led to its worldwide use against river blindness and several other parasitic infections. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-6" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-6" data-testid= "conversation-turn-14" data-turn="assistant"> For many years, the standard approach was: Ivermectin kills or suppresses the baby worms (microfilariae) that cause itching and blindness. Adult worms survive, so treatment must be repeated every year for many years. Then researchers made an important discovery. The 1970s–1990s: A hidden bacterium Scientists discovered that Onchocerca volvulus, the worm that causes river blindness, contains bacteria called Wolbachia. These bacteria are not simply infecting the worm—they live inside its cells and are essential for the worm's biology. Without Wolbachia, the adult worms become infertile and gradually die. Why use an antibiotic? Doxycycline does not kill the worm directly. Instead, it kills the Wolbachia bacteria inside the worm. Without those bacteria: Female worms stop producing baby worms. Adult worms slowly weaken. Many die over the next 18–24 months. So instead of attacking the worm itself, doxycycline attacks something the worm depends on. Think of it this way Imagine a factory. Adult worm = the factory. Baby worms (microfilariae) = the products coming off the assembly line. Wolbachia bacteria = the factory's power plant. Ivermectin clears away the products already on the shelves (the baby worms), but the factory remains standing and eventually starts producing again. Doxycycline shuts down the power plant. The factory can no longer make new products and eventually closes. Why wasn't doxycycline used from the beginning? There are several practical reasons: Scientists didn't recognize the importance of Wolbachia until years after ivermectin had already become the standard treatment. Doxycycline requires a 4–6 week course, whereas ivermectin is usually a single dose. Mass drug administration programs in remote villages are much easier to carry out with one supervised annual dose than with ensuring every person completes weeks of antibiotic therapy. Doxycycline is not recommended during pregnancy and generally not used in children under 8 years old, making it less suitable for community-wide campaigns. Is doxycycline a cure? It can come closer to what parasitologists call macrofilaricidal therapy—treatment that targets the adult worms. However, it is slower than ivermectin. A common strategy in individual patient care is: Ivermectin to rapidly reduce the baby worms causing symptoms and transmission. Doxycycline to eliminate Wolbachia, sterilize the adult worms, and gradually kill them. Why this discovery mattered The discovery of Wolbachia transformed research on river blindness because it showed that the parasite has an Achilles' heel. Instead of trying to poison the worm directly, scientists found they could target its essential bacterial partner. Researchers continue to investigate other drugs that can kill adult Onchocerca worms more quickly than doxycycline, since a shorter, simpler treatment would be much easier to use in endemic regions. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-7" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-7" data-testid= "conversation-turn-16" data-turn="assistant"> This is actually a fascinating story because Wolbachia was discovered long before anyone knew it was the "Achilles' heel" of river blindness. Timeline: The Discovery of Wolbachia 1924 American scientists Marshall Hertig and S. Burt Wolbach were studying mosquitoes at Harvard Medical School. While examining the reproductive tissues of the mosquito Culex pipiens under a microscope, they noticed tiny bacteria living inside the insect's cells. Because the organism was first described by Hertig and named in honor of Wolbach, it became known as Wolbachia pipientis. At the time, they had no idea how widespread or important it would prove to be. 1930s–1970s Scientists occasionally found Wolbachia in insects, but it was considered an odd curiosity. No one knew it infected millions of insect species. No one suspected it played a role in parasitic worms. 1978–1987 Ivermectin is developed and becomes the standard treatment for river blindness. Researchers know ivermectin removes the baby worms, but they cannot explain why the adult worms survive for 10–15 years. Early 1990s Advances in molecular biology allow scientists to identify bacterial DNA inside parasitic worms. Researchers discover that Onchocerca volvulus and several related filarial worms contain Wolbachia bacteria. This is completely unexpected. 1995 A landmark study by Mark J. Taylor and colleagues demonstrates that the bacteria are not accidental passengers. The worms depend on Wolbachia for normal survival and reproduction. This changes the entire understanding of filarial biology. Late 1990s Researchers begin asking a simple question: "If the worms cannot live without Wolbachia, what happens if we kill the bacteria?" They test doxycycline, an inexpensive antibiotic already widely used for bacterial infections. 1999–2003 Clinical trials show that several weeks of doxycycline: removes Wolbachia, permanently sterilizes female worms, and gradually kills many adult worms over the following months. This is the first practical treatment shown to attack the long-lived adult worms indirectly. 2000s The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and several international collaborators lead much of the research on doxycycline therapy for river blindness and lymphatic filariasis. The work helps establish doxycycline as an important option for treating individual patients, although it is less practical than ivermectin for mass drug administration. How did they discover Wolbachia inside the worms? It happened through improvements in laboratory techniques. Scientists used: high-powered electron microscopes, special tissue stains, bacterial DNA sequencing, molecular probes that could identify bacterial genes. When they examined adult Onchocerca worms, they repeatedly found bacteria packed inside reproductive tissues and other cells. The same bacterial DNA appeared over and over. Eventually researchers realized: These bacteria were not infecting the worms like a disease. They were living with the worms in an essential partnership. Without Wolbachia: female worms stop producing baby worms, adult worms become weak, many eventually die. That discovery completely changed river blindness research. Before the 1990s, scientists were focused on killing the worms directly. After the discovery of Wolbachia, they realized they could instead target the bacteria that the worms required to survive. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-8" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-8" data-testid= "conversation-turn-18" data-turn="assistant"> There are really three main approaches to treating river blindness. Keeping it simple helps avoid the confusion. Treatment What it attacks Typical treatment Ivermectin Baby worms (microfilariae) One dose once or twice a year, usually 3–4 tablets for an average adult Doxycycline Wolbachia bacteria inside the adult worms Usually 100 mg twice a day for 4–6 weeks Experimental/new drugs Adult worms directly Still being studied or not widely used How many doxycycline pills? The most common regimen is: 100 mg twice a day for 4 weeks (28 days) or 6 weeks (42 days) That works out to approximately: 4-week course 2 pills per day 56 pills total 6-week course 2 pills per day 84 pills total So compared with ivermectin: Ivermectin: about 3–4 pills once a year Doxycycline: 56–84 pills over one treatment course Why don't they give everyone doxycycline? Mainly because it is much harder to use in mass campaigns. Someone in a remote village has to: remember to take pills every day, complete 4–6 weeks, avoid missing doses, and it generally isn't used during pregnancy or in children under 8 years old. By comparison, ivermectin can be distributed by a community health worker in a single visit once a year. Is there anything else? For most people, that's essentially the whole story: The parasite is Onchocerca volvulus. The adult worms can live for 10–15 years. The baby worms cause the itching and eye damage. Ivermectin clears the baby worms but doesn't reliably kill the adults. The adult worms contain Wolbachia bacteria. Doxycycline kills the Wolbachia, causing the adult worms to become sterile and gradually die over the following 18–24 months. Those six points cover the key biology behind current treatment without getting into more specialized research on newer drugs and combination therapies. It's reasonable to ask whether a very large health program deserves scrutiny. Programs operating across entire continents should be examined critically for their benefits, risks, governance, and transparency. However, based on the available evidence, there is no credible evidence that the ivermectin donation program was a covert program to kill people in Africa. What is well documented is: The program was launched in 1987 to combat river blindness, a disease that had caused blindness and severe skin disease in many endemic regions. Millions of people received ivermectin through national health ministries and international partners. Independent researchers, universities, the World Health Organization, and numerous African public health programs have documented major reductions in river blindness and, in some regions, interruption of transmission. The program has also been associated with substantial reductions in the burden of lymphatic filariasis where ivermectin was part of combination treatment. At the same time, there are legitimate issues that researchers and critics have discussed: Adverse effects in areas where Loa loa is common. People with very high Loa loa microfilarial loads can develop severe neurological complications after ivermectin, which led to changes in screening and treatment strategies in affected regions. Dependence on pharmaceutical donations. Some scholars have questioned whether long-term reliance on donated medicines creates dependency or influences health priorities. Vertical disease programs. Public health experts have debated whether focusing heavily on one disease diverts resources from strengthening broader health systems. Ethics and oversight. As with any mass drug administration program, informed consent, community engagement, and monitoring have been ongoing topics of discussion. Africa has also experienced documented unethical medical research and exploitation in some historical contexts, so it's understandable why people examine large-scale interventions carefully. But it is important to distinguish those documented cases from claims about a specific program. In the case of the ivermectin donation program, the published evidence supports the conclusion that it substantially reduced illness from river blindness rather than serving as a covert harm program. Late 1800s–Early 1900s: Colonial Medicine European colonial powers established medical services throughout Africa. Some work genuinely reduced diseases such as smallpox and sleeping sickness, but medicine was also used to support colonial administration, labor systems, and military control. Researchers often viewed African populations as convenient subjects for large-scale experiments or interventions that would not have been acceptable in Europe. 1900–1930s: Sleeping Sickness Campaigns Large epidemics of sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis) affected Central and East Africa. Colonial governments introduced mass screening and treatment campaigns. Some drugs available at the time, such as atoxyl (an arsenic-containing compound), caused serious side effects, including blindness, because they were used before modern clinical trial standards existed. The intent was to control disease, but treatment programs often involved compulsory examinations and treatment with medicines that were incompletely understood. 1920s–1950s: Forced Public Health Measures In several colonies, health authorities imposed compulsory vaccinations, quarantines, relocations, and medical examinations. These programs sometimes reduced disease transmission but were frequently carried out without informed consent or meaningful community choice. 1940s–1960s: Colonial Research Institutes European governments established tropical medicine institutes across Africa. Many produced valuable scientific discoveries, but ethical oversight varied greatly by modern standards. Questions about informed consent, risk disclosure, and participant autonomy were often secondary to research objectives. 1970s: Apartheid South Africa and Project Coast One of the best-documented examples is Project Coast, South Africa's secret chemical and biological warfare program. Directed by Wouter Basson, it operated during the apartheid era. Investigations after apartheid found that the program researched chemical and biological agents for military purposes and has been linked to unethical human experimentation and covert operations. The extent of every allegation remains debated, but the existence of the program itself is well documented. Cold War Era During the Cold War, African countries became arenas for proxy conflicts involving the United States, Soviet Union, Cuba, China, France, and others. Medical programs sometimes overlapped with intelligence, military logistics, or geopolitical competition, although that does not mean humanitarian health programs were fronts for intelligence operations. HIV/AIDS Era (1980s–2000s) Africa became the epicenter of the global HIV epidemic. This period saw enormous investments in research, vaccine trials, treatment studies, and prevention programs. Most of these studies were conducted under increasingly strict ethical rules compared with earlier decades, but debates continued over: standards of care, placebo-controlled trials, access to medicines after studies ended, and whether poorer countries received equitable treatment. These debates influenced international research ethics and helped strengthen protections for participants. Modern Ethical Frameworks Today, most international research involving human participants is expected to follow principles established in documents such as the Declaration of Helsinki and the CIOMS International Ethical Guidelines, along with review by institutional ethics committees and local regulatory authorities. These safeguards were developed in part because of historical abuses—not only in Africa, but also in Europe, North America, Asia, and elsewhere. Why This History Matters The historical record shows that: Africa experienced both genuine public health successes and documented ethical failures. Colonial governments sometimes prioritized political or economic goals alongside health objectives. Some research and public health programs did not meet ethical standards that are expected today. That history contributes to understandable skepticism in some communities toward outside medical interventions. At the same time, it's important to evaluate each modern program—whether related to malaria, river blindness, HIV, or vaccination—on its own evidence rather than assuming it resembles past abuses. Historical precedent can justify careful scrutiny, but it does not by itself demonstrate that a current program is unethical or harmful. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-turn="assistant"> The campaigns relied much more on community organization and repeated local engagement than on mass advertising. There wasn't one global strategy; approaches evolved over time and varied by country. Researchers have also documented both successes and challenges. Common elements included: Community-directed treatment. Beginning in the 1990s, many African programs adopted the Community-Directed Treatment with Ivermectin (CDTI) model. Villages selected trusted local volunteers to distribute the tablets rather than relying solely on outside health workers. Annual or semiannual visits. Distributors returned each year, measured people's height or weight to determine the dose, recorded who received treatment, and encouraged those who missed the previous round to participate. Health education. Programs explained that river blindness was caused by worms transmitted by blackflies and emphasized that repeated treatment reduced itching, skin disease, and the risk of blindness. Visible benefits. In many communities, people reported that severe itching decreased after treatment. Those visible improvements were often cited by program organizers as an important reason people continued participating. Community leaders. Village chiefs, religious leaders, teachers, and local health workers were frequently involved in encouraging participation and organizing distribution days. How did they deal with concerns and side effects? Programs generally did not claim the medicine had no risks. Instead, they developed procedures to manage concerns: People were informed that some side effects—such as itching, swelling, fever, or headache—could occur, particularly after the first treatment because large numbers of microfilariae were dying. Health workers monitored for adverse events and referred severe cases for medical care. When it became clear that people with very high Loa loa microfilarial loads could experience rare but serious neurological complications, treatment strategies were modified in affected regions. Some areas conducted additional assessments or changed where and how mass treatment was delivered. Did everyone accept it? No. Some communities were hesitant or refused treatment for reasons including: fear of side effects, rumors about the medicine, distrust of governments or foreign organizations, religious or cultural concerns, treatment fatigue after many years of annual campaigns. These issues are described in public health studies of mass drug administration and are one reason programs invested heavily in community engagement. Why was treatment repeated every year? This is one of the biggest points of confusion. Ivermectin does not reliably kill the adult Onchocerca worms, which can live for roughly 10–15 years in the body. Instead, it suppresses or kills the microfilariae—the immature worms responsible for disease—and temporarily reduces the adult worms' production of new microfilariae. As a result, annual or semiannual treatment was intended to keep microfilarial levels low until the adult worms died naturally. At the same time, repeated community-wide treatment reduced the number of microfilariae available for blackflies to transmit, helping interrupt the parasite's life cycle over many years. So the rationale for annual dosing was based on the parasite's biology rather than a one-time cure. Researchers have continued to look for drugs that are more effective at killing the adult worms, because that could shorten treatment programs substantially. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:988a0a06-85ef-49a5-bda1-5cc6aad717b8-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> For the river blindness (onchocerciasis) mass treatment programs, the number is actually surprisingly small. The tablets are usually 3 mg each, and the dose is based on body weight (or sometimes height). Typical once-yearly dose: Body weight Number of 3 mg tablets 15–25 kg (33–55 lb) 1 tablet 26–44 kg (57–97 lb) 2 tablets 45–64 kg (99–141 lb) 3 tablets 65–84 kg (143–185 lb) 4 tablets 85 kg+ (187 lb+) Weight-based (often 4–5 tablets) So for most adults, the annual treatment is typically: 3 tablets if they're average-sized. 4 tablets if they're larger. Many programs give one dose per year, although in some areas with higher transmission they give it twice per year (every six months). That means, over the long term: 1 year: about 3–4 pills 10 years: about 30–40 pills 20 years: about 60–80 pills This also helps explain how the donation program reached such enormous totals. When people hear "billions of ivermectin treatments," a treatment usually means one annual dose, which for most adults consists of only 3 or 4 tablets, not bottles of medication. The cumulative total became so large because tens or hundreds of millions of people received those few tablets year after year. . *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c6446963-798a-4bb1-9245-16ca27678153-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c6446963-798a-4bb1-9245-16ca27678153-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-turn="assistant"> Richard W. Ashford and the Liverpool doxycycline researchers were in the same broad scientific field: tropical parasitology. In fact, Ashford spent much of his career at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and later became Professor of Parasite and Vector Biology there. However, "tropical parasitology" is a very broad discipline. Within it, researchers often specialize in different parasite groups: R. W. Ashford — human parasitology broadly, especially protozoa (including the organism later named Cyclospora), intestinal parasites, zoonoses, parasite ecology, and taxonomy. He also wrote major reference works on human parasites. Mark Taylor, Stephen Ward, David Molyneux, Achim Hoerauf — specialized much more narrowly in filarial nematodes (Onchocerca, Wuchereria, etc.) and eventually the Wolbachia bacteria living inside those worms, leading to doxycycline-based treatments. So they were very much in the same academic community. They: attended many of the same tropical medicine meetings, published in many of the same journals (such as Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology), worked at the same institution during overlapping years, and studied neglected tropical diseases. One particularly interesting overlap is David Molyneux. He was one of Liverpool's leading experts on filarial diseases while Ashford was a professor there. Their careers overlapped at Liverpool, and they would almost certainly have known each other professionally, even though they focused on different parasites. So if you're tracing the scientific network, it is reasonable to view them as belonging to the same Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine ecosystem. Ashford was not one of the scientists who developed anti-Wolbachia therapy, but he was part of the same institutional and professional community from which that work emerged. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8168a89d-0e4f-4437-aa8e-bf33f35c0c23-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8168a89d-0e4f-4437-aa8e-bf33f35c0c23-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-turn="assistant"> River Blindness (Onchocerciasis) Spread by blackflies (Simulium species). The parasite Onchocerca volvulus Discovered The adult worm was first scientifically described in 1874 by Irish physician John O'Neill, who found it in skin nodules from patients in West Africa. How it spreadsies breed in fast-flowing rivers and streams. That is why the disease became known as river blindness. What happens The adult worms live in nodules beneath the skin. They produce millions of baby worms called microfilariae. Those baby worms travel through: the skin (causing severe itching) the eyes (causing inflammation and eventually blindness) The adult worms may live 10–15 years. Loa loa (African Eye Worm) The parasite Loa loa First described The worm was first described scientifically in the late 1700s after European physicians observed a worm moving beneath the eye of people returning from West Africa. The species was formally named during the 1800s. Where it occurs Mainly the rainforests of Cameroon Gabon Republic of the Congo Democratic Republic of the Congo Central African Republic Equatorial Guinea parts of Nigeria How it spreads Not by blackflies. It is spread by deer flies (Chrysops), also called mango flies. The major difference River blindness Adult worms stay under the skin. Baby worms travel through skin eyes Loa loa Adult worms migrate through tissues. Sometimes one crawls across the white of the eye, giving rise to the name African eye worm. The baby worms circulate in the bloodstream during the day. 1970s–1980s Large international campaigns begin planning to eliminate river blindness. Researchers identify ivermectin as a promising treatment. 1987 Merck announces the Mectizan Donation Program. The company agrees to donate ivermectin for as long as needed to fight river blindness. Early campaigns Millions of people receive ivermectin. In most areas treatment works very well. The baby worms disappear. Blindness falls dramatically. Unexpected problem Doctors begin noticing something unusual in parts of Central Africa. A very small number of patients become severely ill after treatment. Some develop confusion coma neurological injury Some die. Investigation Researchers eventually discover these patients usually do not have a problem because of river blindness itself. Instead, they also have another infection: Loa loa Why? A person may carry enormous numbers of Loa loa baby worms in their blood. Examples: Normal infection: a few thousand per milliliter Heavy infection: 30,000 50,000 100,000+ sometimes even higher When ivermectin is given, it rapidly kills huge numbers of these baby worms. Researchers believe the sudden death of so many parasites triggers an intense inflammatory response. In people with very high Loa loa microfilarial loads, this reaction can damage the brain and lead to post-ivermectin encephalopathy. The exact biological mechanisms are still being studied, but the association between very high Loa loa counts and this rare complication is well documented. Modern programs Today programs first determine whether Loa loa exists in an area. If it does, extra precautions may be taken before mass ivermectin treatment. Simple Summary River Blindness Loa loa Worm: Onchocerca volvulus Worm: Loa loa Spread by blackflies Spread by deer flies (Chrysops) Adult worms under the skin Adult worms migrate through body tissues Baby worms in skin and eyes Baby worms circulate in the blood Causes itching and blindness Usually causes transient swellings and occasionally a worm crossing the eye Ivermectin removes the baby worms Ivermectin also kills the baby worms, but in people with very high Loa loa microfilarial loads it can rarely trigger severe neurological complications Thinking of them as two separate diseases that happen to overlap geographically makes the situation much easier to understand. River blindness is the disease ivermectin was designed to control, while Loa loa is a different parasitic infection that required public health programs to modify ivermectin campaigns in certain regions of Central Africa. Since 1987, Merck has donated more than 5 billion ivermectin (Mectizan) treatments over 38 years. The program now reaches more than 300 million people annually and is widely regarded as the longest-running disease-specific drug donation program in history. Merck & Co. Co-Developed Ivermectin. Donated 5 Billion Free Treatments (1987–2025). Fighting River Blindness and Other Parasitic Diseases Across Africa or destroying DNA and silent death. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-10" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-10" data-testid= "conversation-turn-22" data-turn="assistant"> Here's the timeline with The Carter Center added at the appropriate points. Year Event 1668 Merck is founded in Darmstadt, Germany. 1917 During World War I, the U.S. government seizes Merck's American subsidiary. It later becomes the independent U.S. company Merck & Co. 1973 Japanese microbiologist Satoshi Ōmura isolates the soil microorganism that produces avermectins. 1974 Ōmura sends samples to Merck Research Laboratories in the United States. 1975 Merck scientist Dr. William Campbell proposes using ivermectin (then under development) against river blindness. 1975–1980 Merck develops ivermectin and conducts laboratory and animal studies. 1981 First human clinical trials begin in Senegal under Merck and WHO collaboration. October 1987 Merck CEO Dr. Roy Vagelos announces that Mectizan (ivermectin) will be donated "as much as needed, for as long as needed." Late 1987 Merck realizes it needs a global distribution system and asks Dr. William Foege, then executive director of The Carter Center and leader of the Task Force for Child Survival, to help organize it. 1988 The Mectizan Donation Program (MDP) and the Mectizan Expert Committee are formally established. Foege serves as the first chair and oversees global distribution. 1990 The Carter Center begins expanding its own river blindness activities in endemic countries. 1992–1993 The Onchocerciasis Elimination Program for the Americas (OEPA) is launched and later sponsored by The Carter Center, coordinating elimination efforts in six endemic countries in Latin America. 1995 The African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) is established with WHO, the World Bank, African governments, and partners. 1996 The Carter Center greatly expands its river blindness work by taking over much of the River Blindness Foundation's operations. 1998 Merck expands the donation program to include lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) in co-endemic African countries and Yemen. 2015 William Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery and development of avermectin/ivermectin. 2025 Merck reports more than 5 billion treatments donated over 38 years. One interesting historical point The Carter Center did not originate the idea of donating ivermectin. The sequence was: Merck discovered and developed the drug. Merck decided to donate it in 1987. Merck then approached Dr. William Foege because the company needed someone with experience running massive international disease campaigns. Foege, who was leading The Carter Center and had directed the global smallpox eradication effort at the CDC, designed much of the system for safely distributing the drug worldwide. In other words, Merck supplied the medicine; the Carter Center became one of the key organizations that helped build the infrastructure to get it to millions of people. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-11" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-11" data-testid= "conversation-turn-24" data-turn="assistant"> So, if everyone received one treatment per year on average, 5 billion treatments would roughly correspond to: about 250 million people treated over 20 years, or about 500 million people treated over 10 years. In reality, the number of unique people is difficult to calculate because: people enter and leave programs, children are born and later become eligible, some areas treat once a year and others twice, some countries eliminated the disease and stopped treatment while others continued. Annual scale In many recent years: approximately 100–120 million people have received ivermectin annually for river blindness. When lymphatic filariasis programs using ivermectin are included, annual recipients have often exceeded 200 million people. So over nearly four decades, the cumulative number of individuals who have received at least one ivermectin treatment is likely in the hundreds of millions. There is no official published count of unique recipients because the programs track annual treatments rather than assigning a lifetime total to each person. From a historical perspective, the Mectizan Donation Program is often grouped with major achievements such as smallpox eradication, oral rehydration therapy, and large childhood immunization campaigns because of its extraordinary scale and sustained duration. It represents one of the largest long-term medicine donation efforts ever undertaken. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-turn="assistant"> Countries that have eliminated the disease Some countries no longer need mass ivermectin distribution because transmission has been interrupted or eliminated. For river blindness, WHO has verified elimination in: Colombia Ecuador Guatemala Mexico Other countries have also eliminated transmission in specific regions. Countries where treatment continues Mass treatment is still ongoing in parts of: Democratic Republic of the Congo Nigeria Cameroon South Sudan Ethiopia Angola Central African Republic Chad and several other African countries These areas continue annual or twice-yearly community treatment because the parasite is still being transmitted. Do people still get it regularly? Yes. In communities where river blindness or lymphatic filariasis remains endemic, eligible residents are still offered ivermectin through organized public health campaigns. Typically: community health workers announce distribution days, people come to a central location or health workers go house to house, dosage is determined by height or weight, treatment is repeated annually or semiannually until health authorities determine transmission has stopped. Is Merck still donating it? Yes. Merck announced in late 2025 that it would continue donating up to 100 million ivermectin treatments per year through at least 2030 for lymphatic filariasis elimination, while continuing its longstanding commitment to river blindness elimination. How many people are still reached? The scale remains enormous. The broader Mectizan Donation Program continues to reach hundreds of millions of people annually through its partnerships. Merck reported that in 2024, across all of its product donation programs, it reached more than 292 million people, with the Mectizan Donation Program remaining one of its flagship efforts. One thing that stands out historically is the duration. The commitment began in 1987 and is still active nearly 40 years later. Very few large-scale public health interventions—whether run by governments, charities, or private companies—have maintained that level of continuity over such a long period. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-13" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-13" data-testid= "conversation-turn-28" data-turn="assistant"> Africa: roughly 99% of the world's river blindness burden. Latin America: only about 1%, spread among six countries: Mexico Guatemala Colombia Ecuador Venezuela Brazil The Americas therefore became a realistic elimination target. Mexico's timeline 1980s – Ivermectin treatment begins. 1992 – Mexico joins the regional elimination effort through the Onchocerciasis Elimination Program for the Americas (OEPA). 1990s–2000s – Communities receive ivermectin twice yearly in endemic areas. 2015 – World Health Organization verifies that Mexico has eliminated onchocerciasis as a public health problem. Mexico was actually the third country in the world to receive WHO verification for eliminating river blindness, after Colombia and Ecuador. Why did it work in Mexico? Several factors helped: The endemic area was relatively small compared with Central Africa. Health workers achieved very high treatment coverage year after year. Blackfly breeding sites were geographically limited. The parasite could no longer sustain transmission after repeated community-wide ivermectin treatment. So today, people in Chiapas are not receiving routine community ivermectin for river blindness because the disease has been eliminated there. One interesting connection to your earlier research is that Mexico appears in two very different infectious disease stories: River blindness — where decades of organized ivermectin distribution are generally regarded as a major public health success. Cyclospora and produce-associated outbreaks — which involve a completely different parasite, different mode of transmission (fecal contamination of food or water), and different prevention strategies. Although both concern infectious diseases, they are unrelated biologically and epidemiologically.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-(--sticky-padding-top)" dir="auto" data-turn-id="ea2ca438-5713-4424-a7c6-dd5677a5cd5c" data-turn-id-container="ea2ca438-5713-4424-a7c6-dd5677a5cd5c" data-testid="conversation-turn-29" data-turn="user"> so WHO was able to do the same kind of deal in mexico and those countiries, where merck paid for the pills   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-14" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-14" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-turn="assistant"> Yes, essentially. That's what made the program unusual. The roles were divided roughly like this: Organization Responsibility Merck Manufactured and donated the ivermectin tablets. WHO Developed treatment guidelines, monitored the program, and provided technical leadership. National Ministries of Health Organized treatment campaigns within each country. The Carter Center, PAHO, NGOs, Task Force for Global Health Helped train workers, coordinate logistics, monitor results, and support distribution. Local communities Chose community drug distributors and actually handed out the medicine. So in Mexico, for example: Merck paid for the Mectizan (ivermectin). Mexico's Ministry of Health organized national implementation. WHO and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) provided technical guidance. The Onchocerciasis Elimination Program for the Americas (OEPA), later sponsored by The Carter Center, coordinated elimination across the six endemic countries in the Americas. One interesting aspect is that Merck didn't simply ship pills to WHO. Instead, countries or approved programs would estimate how many treatments they needed, submit requests through the Mectizan Donation Program, and, once approved, the medicine was shipped at no cost. The local public health system then distributed it to eligible communities. So if you were in an endemic village in Chiapas, Mexico, in the 1990s, the chain looked something like this: Merck manufactured and donated the ivermectin. The Mectizan Donation Program approved the request. WHO/PAHO and OEPA provided technical oversight. Mexico's Ministry of Health organized the campaign. Community health workers distributed the tablets in the village. It was a remarkably coordinated public-private partnership. Merck has described it as one of the first large-scale collaborations of its kind involving a pharmaceutical company, WHO, governments, NGOs, and local communities working together over decades. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-turn="assistant"> Yes, there have been several other enormous mass drug administration (MDA) campaigns, but the Mectizan (ivermectin) program is generally considered one of the largest and longest-running single-drug donation programs in history. Here's how some of the major campaigns compare: Program Medicine Approximate Scale River blindness Ivermectin (Merck) 5+ billion treatments since 1987. Lymphatic filariasis Ivermectin + albendazole or DEC + albendazole Hundreds of millions treated annually in many years. Intestinal worms (school deworming) Albendazole (GSK) and mebendazole (Johnson & Johnson) More than 10 billion tablets donated over the years. Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) Praziquantel (Merck KGaA, Germany) Billions of tablets donated through WHO programs. A point that's easy to miss is that the Merck donating ivermectin is the U.S. company (Merck & Co./MSD), while the Merck donating praziquantel is the German company (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt). Despite sharing the historical Merck name, they are separate companies today. Is the ivermectin program the biggest in Africa? It depends on what you mean by "biggest." If you mean a medicine handed out year after year across multiple countries, then yes, it is one of the largest ever conducted in Africa. If you include all neglected tropical disease programs together, Africa has seen several enormous campaigns: Ivermectin for river blindness. Ivermectin + albendazole for lymphatic filariasis. Praziquantel for schistosomiasis. Albendazole or mebendazole for intestinal worms in schoolchildren. Often, these campaigns were coordinated together, so a child might receive more than one medicine during the same public health visit. What may be even more remarkable One reason historians frequently highlight the Mectizan program is that it has been: running for nearly 40 years, based on an unlimited donation commitment, sustained by a partnership among a pharmaceutical company, WHO, governments, NGOs, and local communities, and has delivered billions of treatments. There are larger health interventions if you count vaccines—for example, the WHO Expanded Programme on Immunization has delivered many billions of vaccine doses worldwide—but those involve many different vaccines, manufacturers, and funding sources over decades. They are not comparable to a single company donating one medicine indefinitely. So, in terms of a single medicine donated by one company and distributed over decades, the ivermectin/Mectizan program is widely regarded as one of the largest humanitarian pharmaceutical efforts ever undertaken. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-16" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:439892f5-7107-4690-a1c0-8eb3a4be4152-16" data-testid= "conversation-turn-34" data-turn="assistant"> Not all in Africa, but Africa has been the largest recipient of several of these programs. Here's the breakdown: Program Africa Other Regions River blindness (ivermectin) Mostly Africa (about 99% of the global burden) Small endemic areas in Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Brazil, and Yemen. Lymphatic filariasis Large programs in Africa Also major programs in India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Haiti, parts of the Pacific, and Southeast Asia. School deworming (albendazole/mebendazole) Large African programs Also enormous in Asia, especially India, China (historically), Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and the Philippines. Schistosomiasis (praziquantel) Primarily Africa today (roughly 90% of the global burden) Also found in Brazil, China, the Philippines, parts of the Middle East, and a few other countries. So if you're asking whether Africa has been the main focus of mass drug administration, the answer is yes. The reason is epidemiological rather than simply geographic. Many of the world's neglected tropical diseases have their highest burden in sub-Saharan Africa. For example: River blindness: about 99% of people at risk have lived in Africa. Schistosomiasis: roughly 90% of people requiring treatment are in Africa. Lymphatic filariasis: Africa has a very large burden, but South and Southeast Asia have also had very large programs. Intestinal worms: the burden is split between Africa and Asia, with India alone historically accounting for a very large share of children needing treatment. If you add them together From roughly the late 1980s onward, hundreds of millions of Africans have participated in repeated public health campaigns involving one or more medicines: ivermectin, albendazole, mebendazole, praziquantel, azithromycin (for trachoma in many countries), and, in some settings, combinations of these medicines during the same campaign. These campaigns often used the same community health worker networks, allowing multiple neglected tropical disease programs to be delivered efficiently. One reason Africa appears so prominently in global health history is that it became the principal focus of several of the world's largest long-term campaigns against neglected tropical diseases, supported by partnerships among governments, WHO, pharmaceutical companies, NGOs, and local communities. That reflects where these diseases were most prevalent, rather than all campaigns being exclusive to Africa. One interesting point is that Merck's ivermectin donation helped establish a model. After the success of the Mectizan Donation Program, other pharmaceutical companies launched large donation programs for different neglected tropical diseases. For example: GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) donated billions of albendazole tablets. Johnson & Johnson donated mebendazole. Merck KGaA (Germany) donated praziquantel. Pfizer donated azithromycin for trachoma. Together, these programs became the backbone of WHO-led neglected tropical disease control efforts in many low-income countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, while also reaching millions of people in Asia and Latin America. "CLASTOGENIC" - 18 Studies Highlighting Ivermectin Induced DNA Breakage, Damage & Related Disorders Cytotoxic, Mutagenic, Genotoxic & Clastogenic? Ivermectin Is A Menace   Tim Truth Jun 19, 2023 Definitions: A clastogen is a substance or agent that induces chromosomal breakage or structural changes in the DNA of cells. The term "clastogen" is derived from the Greek word "klastos," meaning "to break." Clastogens can cause damage to the genetic material, leading to the formation of chromosomal aberrations. A mutagen is a substance or agent that can induce changes or mutations in the DNA sequence of an organism. These mutations can alter the genetic information and potentially lead to the development of new diseases. Genotoxic refers to substances or agents that have the ability to damage or alter the genetic material (DNA) of living cells, increasing the risk of mutations. These mutations can have detrimental effects on the organism, potentially leading to the development of cancer or other genetic disorders.   In this article I want to look at a number of studies showing a dose dependent increase in DNA breaks, chromosomal aberrations, etc when ivermectin is administered to cell cultures or animals. Video report now available: https://rumble.com/v2yp1we-ivermectin-dna-wreckage-depopulation-agent-ivm-is-mutagenic-genotoxic-and-c.html Study #1: Mutagenicity of Ivermectin In Rats In a study titled 'The mutagenic effects of ivermectin in germinal cells and serum protein of the mouse' by Sweify et al, researchers conducted an experiment to investigate the mutagenicity of Ivermectin on meiotic chromosomes of mice. They found a significant increase in meiotic aberrations, suggesting that Ivermectin is of mutagenic nature. (full report) "Effects of ivermectin on spermatocyte chromosomes: Structural aberrations: Cytological analysis of diakinesis-metaphase I spermatocytes of the treated samples revealed significant increase in chromosome aberrations over the control values." "Analysis of the treated samples revealed significant increase in meiotic aberrations, 33.83% vs 5.8% for the control (P     "Effects of ivermectin on spermatocyte chromosomes: … spermatocytes of the treated samples revealed significant increase in chromosome aberrations over the control values" "The present observations pointed to the mutagenic effects of IVM. The frequency of translocation is significantly higher than that found in the control samples" "These studies revealed high clastogenic and genotoxic potential of IVM" "In the present work, IVM induced significant increase in the reciprocal translocation figs.of primary spermatocytes. The changes in the serum protein fractions add another warning for the mutagenicity of IVM."   Study #2: Ivermectin Genotoxicity On Buffalo Lymphocytes In a paper called 'Antimutagenic Activity of Some Natural supplements on Ivermectin genotoxicity in Lymphocytes of Buffalo' by El-makawy et al, researchers investigated the impact of garlic, L-carnitine, and wheat germ oil on the genotoxicity induced by ivermectin in buffalo lymphocyte cultures, finding that ivermectin caused a significant rise in micronuclei and chromosomal aberrations with increasing doses (full report) Cell Abnormalities   The units here are # per 10,000 Cells; Blue lines are the control levels Structural Chromosomal Aberrations Observed:     "Results showed that ivermectin induced dose dependent increase in the frequencies of the binucleated lymphocytes with micronuclei as well as the number of micronuclei in lymphocytes of river buffalo" "Ivermectin low dose caused non-significant increase in the frequency of total chromosomal aberrations in lymphocytes of river buffalo as compared to control. Whereas, in medium and high doses the frequencies of aberrant cells increased at a significant level (P ≤ 0.001) than control." "In addition, the numbers of binucleated lymphocytes showed dose dependent decrease than control. These results revealed that the drug has a cytotoxic effect on the number of cell divisions. As the micronuclei are small chromatin-containing bodies arising from chromosome fragmentation by breaks or deletion, the results of MN [micronuclei] formation confirmed our results of chromosomal aberrations indicating the clastogenic effects of ivermectin." Study #3: Ivermectin's Cytogenic Potential On Mice Bone Marrow Cells In a study called 'The cytogenetic potential of ivermectin on bone marrow cells of mice in vivo' from Sweify et al, researchers evaluated the cytogenicity of Ivermectin (IVM) on mice through chromosomal aberration and micronucleus tests, finding that IVM induced high levels of chromosome aberrations and genotoxicity in somatic cells. "IVM induced high level of chromosome aberrations in somatic cells, as it is ascertained by chromosome aberration assay and micronuclei production in bone marrow cells. This study revealed high clastogenic and genotoxic potential of IVM on mice" "The Table contains also the different types of chromosomal aberrations recorded in the examined cells. A single i.p. injection of ivermectin [200μg/kg ivermectin] resulted in a significant (P≤0.001) increase in percentage of aberrant cells" "It is clear from the Table (II) that injection with ivermectin induced high significant increase in the frequency of the damaged cells allover the examined periods (P≤0.001)." Study #4: Ivermectin Breaks DNA Strands In Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells In a study called 'In vitro genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of ivermectin… on Chinese hamster ovary (CHO K1 ) cells' by Molinari et all, researchers conducted various genotoxicity and cytotoxicity assays to investigate the effects of ivermectin (IVM) and its commercial formulation ivomec® on Chinese hamster ovary (CHO K1) cells and found that Ivermectin caused DNA-strand breaks in Chinese hamster ovary cells. (Full article) "… IVM and ivomec® … induced DNA-strand breaks revealed by SCGE [single cell gel electrophoresis]" "Both chemicals induced DNA-strand breaks revealed by the comet assay" "IVM and ivomec® exert both genotoxicity and cytotoxicity in mammalian cells in vitro, at least in CHO K1 cells." "A brief 80 min pulse-treatment of 5.0–50.0 μg/ml of IVM or 25.0 and 50.0 μ g/ml of ivomec® , resulted in a manifest level of single DNA-strand break induction." Study #5: Ivermectin Induces DNA Damage In Human HeLa Cells In a study called 'Ivermectin Confers Its Cytotoxic Effects by Inducing AMPK/mTOR-mediated Autophagy and DNA2 Damage' Zhang Et Al (full writeup here) "The results indicate that IVM can induce DNA double-strand breaks in HeLa cells, and the degree of double-strand break is dependent on the concentration of IVM." "Ivermectin has significant ability to induce DNA oxidative damage and enhance autophagy in HeLa cells" "As expected, we found that IVM can induce oxidative double-stranded damage in HeLa cells, indicating that IVM has potential genotoxicity to human health." "We conclude that IVM produces genotoxicity and cytotoxicity by inducing DNA damage and AMPK/mTOR-mediated autophagy, thereby posing a potential risk to human health." Study #6: Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of Ivermectin On Fruit Flies In a study called 'Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of ivermectin and amoxicillin in vivo systems' by Aparecida de Sousa et al (full report here), "The results revealed that IVM increased the frequency of epithelial tumor in D. melanogaster considering all evaluated concentrations" "It was observed a dose-dependence in the frequency of MN [Micronuclei] in T. pallida considering the highest concentrations (11.42, 22.84 and 45.68 × 10−5 mM) differing statistically (p ≤ 0.05) from the negative control, evidencing a genotoxic effect of IVM" "The results observed in D. melanogaster and T. pallida showed that IVM can increase the damage in the genetic material, leading to genetic instability." "Findings showed an increase in the frequency of micronuclei in T. pallida treated with 11.42, 22.84 and 45.68 x 10 −5 mM of IVM. We conclude that chronic exposure to IVM is directly associated with events resulting from genetic instability (genotoxicity and carcinogenicity)."   Study #7: DNA Strand Breaks Induced By Ivermectin In Mosquitoes In a study called 'Genotoxic and cytotoxic in vitro evaluation of ivermectin… on Aedes albopictus larvae (CCL-126™) cells' (Full paper): "IVM… induced DNA-strand breaks enhancing both slightly damaged and damaged cells at 25–50 μg/ml IVM" "Data indicated that IVM exerts both genotoxicity and cytotoxicity in insect cells [A. albopictus larvae CCL-126 cells] in vitro" Study #8: High Levels Of DNA Damage In Cows Exposed To Ivermectin In a paper called 'Comet assay to determine genetic damage by the use of ivermectin in zebu cows' by Montes-Vergara et al, researchers explored how much DNA damage ivermectin causes in the Zebu cow. "The values of classification of comets indicate cells with high levels of damage (grade 3: cells with high damage). The rate of DNA damage of the treatment to 1% to 3.15% was significant… The results obtained in this study demonstrate the likely genotoxic potential of the use of IVM in cattle." "Regardless of the IVM concentration, the presence of nuclei with DNA migration (Figure 1a and b) was observed at a percentage greater than 75% in all cells observed per plaque, demonstrating the ability of the IVM compound to produce simple chain breaks in the DNA molecule." The Comet classification describes how damaged the DNA of cells are. All of the control group (no treatment) measured 0 on the comet scale, indicating little if any DNA damage. Here are the comet classification results for the IVM treated cows: "The results found in the present study constitute concrete evidence for the induction of genomic damage as exerted by IVM, using the comet assay methodology" "In conclusion, the results suggest that the genetic damage found in the studied livestock may be associated with the use of IVM" Study #9: Ivermectin's Genotoxic Effects On Tadpoles In a study called 'Genotoxicity of Three Avermectins on Polypedates megacephalus Tadpoles Using the Comet Assay' by Geng et al, some very concerning findings were noted in relation to Ivermectin's "genotoxic effects at relatively low concentrations" in Tadpoles. (Full Paper) "The tadpoles exposed to the lower concentrations of ABM (0.006 mg/ L) showed a significant increase in DNA damage (P "Our results showed clearly that avermectins caused dose dependent DNA damage on amphibian tadpoles… The three avermectins increased the DNA damage observed in the tadpoles in a dose-responsive manner. There were strong linear correlations between the DNA damages and the concentrations of the three test substances (Figure 2). The cellular distributions of DNA damages in tadpoles are shown in Figure 3. Of the tadpoles treated with increasing concentrations of the three test substances, higher proportions of cells had greater amount of DNA damage than those of the negative control" This chart shows a dose-dependent increase in DNA damage as IVM dosing increases:       "According to these results above and our finding that avermectins can cause DNA damage in tadpoles at the concentrations below the recommended applied levels (Xu et al., 2010), we consider it possible that avermectins are carcinogenic, and confirm it has the negative impact on the development of tadpoles" Study #10: Ivermectin Induced DNA Damage In Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells In a paper called 'DNA damage kinetics and apoptosis in ivermectin-treated chinese hamster ovary cells' (full report) by Molinari et al, researchers conducted an experiment using the comet assay to analyze the kinetics of DNA damage in Chinese hamster ovary cells induced by ivermectin. "After 6 h of treatment, cell survival decreased up to 75% and 79% in IVM- and IVO-treated cultures, respectively" "A clear increase in DNA damage was found immediately after test compound treatments (0 h) (Fig. 1). In both IVM- (Fig. 1A) and IVO-treated cells (Fig. 1B)" "For both anthelmintics, biphasic behavior in DNA damage occurred during the incubation time." A time-dependent increase of IVM- and IVO-induced DNA damage was observed within 0 to 3 h after pulse treatment, revealed by a progressive decrease of undamaged cells and an increase in slightly damaged and damaged cells." "A time-dependent increase in IVM- and IVO-induced DNA damage was observed by a progressive decrease of undamaged cells simultaneously with an increase in the frequency of slightly damaged and damaged cells within the 0–3 h post-incubation time. " Study #11: Avermectin Induces DNA Damage In Chinese Mitten Crab Haemocyte Blood Cells In a paper called 'Avermectin induces the oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and immunological responses in the Chinese Mitten Crab, Eriocheir sinensis' researchers investigated the aquatic toxicity of avermectin and its effects on E. sinensis crabs. The study found that exposure to sublethal concentrations of avermectin resulted in decreased levels of antioxidants, increased oxidative products, elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced phagocytic activity, and genetic damage in the crabs, indicating significant toxic effects on the species including oxidative stress, immunological activity inhibition, and genotoxicity. "Avermectin or its family members can induce oxidative and immunological dam- age as well as genotoxicity in mammals, birds and fish" "the 48-h and 96-h LC50 values of avermectin on E. sinensis were 1.663 mg/ L … and 0.954 mg/L" "Avermectin induces DNA damage in haemocytes"   "a comet assay was performed to investigate the level of DNA damage under avermectin exposure. In control, most haemocytes were observed with a circular, intact nuclei, whereas different degree of comets in the exposure groups early at 24 h. More comets appeared with increase of avermectin concentration. The comet ratio and percentage of DNA in tail increased significantly at each concentration from 24 h (P "Avermectin induces MN [Micronuclei] frequency in haemocytes… An obvious increase of MN frequency was observed at high concentrations especially at 0.48 mg/L from 48h exposure. And at 96 h, there is a significant difference in concentration groups of 0.12, 0.24 and 0.48 mg/L compared to control (P "According to the results from two-way ANOVA, a significant interaction between avermectin concentration and exposure time was found for all biomarkers involved (Table 1). All bio markers investigated in this test showed a significant correlation between the concentration, exposure time and their cross combination. It indicated that both avermectin concentrations and exposure time have significant effects on the oxidative, immunological response and DNA damage in E.sinensis" "The MN test was developed as a simple and practical in vivo cytogenetic screening method for mutagens [42]. In the present study, MN frequency increased significantly in high concentration groups from 48 h"   Study #12: Ivermectin's Genotoxic Effects In White Swiss Mice Bone Marrow In a paper called 'The Study of Genotoxic and Cytotoxic Effects and DNA Damage by Ivermectin in Bone Marrow of Male White Swiss Mice Mus musculus' by Sadek et al, researchers evaluated the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of Ivermectin (IVM) on the bone marrow of male white Swiss mice using various cytogenetic endpoints. The results demonstrated that IVM administration led to a significant decrease in polychromatic erythrocytes and a significant increase in micronuclei formation, indicating both anuegenic and clastogenic effects. Furthermore, the comet assay revealed significant DNA damage in bone marrow cells treated with IVM, highlighting its genotoxic and cytotoxic potential in somatic cells. "Results of current study revealed that IVM have genotoxic and cytotoxic effects on somatic cells of male white mice." "Oral treatment of white mice with IVM induced a significant DNA damage in bone marrow cells, which revealed by comet assay results, the mean of damaged bone marrow cells in mice treated with doses 0.6 and 0.8 mg/ kg. b.wt. were different significantly when compared with negative control(P≤ 0.01)." "IVM induced both anuegenic and clastogenic effects in bone marrow of male white mice, The results showed a significant increase in means of numerical chromosome aberrations (anueploidy and polyploidy) (P≤ 0.05), the highest mean of structural chromosome aberration (with and without gabs) was recorded in mice treated with 0.8 mg/ kg. b.wt. (P≤ 0.01)." "The results showed that IVM induced significant decrease in the mean of polychromatic erythrocytes and the lowest value was recorded at the dose 0.6 mg/ kg. b.wt.(P≤ 0.01) and significant increase in the mean of micronuclei were induced by the three doses of drug (P≤ 0.01)." Study #13: Ivermectin's Mutagenic Effects in Mice In a paper called 'Mutagenic Effects of the Combination and Its Components of Albendazole and Ivermectin in vivo and in vitro' by Lin et al "Albendazole and ivermectin, common antiparasitic drugs widely used in livestock production, showed mutagenic effects in some extent" "the mice treated with ivermectin or albendazole showed higher micronucleus frequency and sperm abnormality rate." "The sperm abnormalities in the ivermectin single-drug group were mainly head deformities and body-tail folds… Among them, the proportion of banana head and amorphism was the highest." Study #14: Ivermectin's Genotoxicity Measured In Rat Bone Marrow Cells In a paper called 'In vivo combined treatment of rats with ivermectin and aged garlic extract attenuates ivermectin-induced cytogenotoxicity in bone marrow cells' by Khalil et al (full paper), Male Sprague Dawley rats were administered varying doses of IVM intraperitoneally, and the results indicated that high doses of IVM caused significant cytogenetic toxicity.   "IVM was found cytotoxic and mutagenic at high doses since it significantly reduced %MI [mitotic index] and increased %NA [percentage nuclear abnormalities] and %Abc [percentage chromosomal abnormalities]. These observations may be due to disturbances in the mitotic processes that lead to formation of severe CA [chromosomal aberrations] and in turn caused cell death or cease of further cell divisions."     Study #15: Studying The Pairing Of Ivermectin With Pgp Inhibitor Verapamil In a study called 'Effect of ivermectin on male fertility and its interaction with P-glycoprotein inhibitor (verapamil) in rats' by El-Nahas & El-Ashmawy (full report)   Ivermectin, along with a Pgp-inhibitor/ CYP3A4-inhibitor, results in a remarkable 59% increase in abnormal sperm count, while sperm motility decreases by 8% with Ivermectin alone and by 23% when combined with the Pgp-inhibitor. Let's look at the differences in abnormal sperm cells by category by treatment group in this series of 9 charts: Study #16: Ivermectin Mutagenicity Rat Study In a paper called 'Micronuclei induction by some anthelmintic drugs in male mice' by EL-makawy (full report) "Contrariwise, at 72 hrs after treatment.. ivermectin induced statistically significant increase in the number of MN [Micronuclei] over the negative control" The researchers are concerned that the veterinary dosing of livestock may pose a potential risk of dangerous exposure, which could lead to harmful "genotoxic effects on humans."   MNPCEs stands for Micronucleated Polychromatic Erythrocytes. They are a type of abnormal cells that can be observed in the bone marrow and peripheral blood of animals, including humans, following exposure to certain genotoxic substances or conditions. The presence of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes is generally considered a sign of genetic damage or chromosomal abnormalities. These cells have small additional nuclei, known as micronuclei, which contain fragments of chromosomes or whole chromosomes that were not properly incorporated into the daughter cells during cell division. Study #17: Ivermectin Damaging DNA In Chinese Hamster Ovary & Insect Cell Lines In a paper called 'IVERMECTINAS: EVALUACIÓN DE SU EFECTO DELETÉREO MEDIANTE ENSAYOS DE GENOTOXICIDAD' "when the comet assay was employed, both ivermectin and Ivomec® were able to induce DNA single-strand breaks in CHO-K1 and CCL-126 cells" "Overall, the results evidence that ivermectin present a similar pattern of cytotoxic and genotoxic damage than that induced by Ivomec®." "Our results demonstrate that ivermectin has the ability to induce damage in the DNA molecule, at least in CHO-K1 and CCL-126 cells, but also highlight a highly cytotoxic capacity as the major deleterious effect of this antibiotic." "Its widespread use would seriously jeopardize the organisms that are usually treated with ivermectin including human beings." "DNA migration analysis was performed by measuring the length and width of the observed images. All the concentrations of both compounds tested on CHO-K1 and CCL-126 cells significantly increased the levels of DNA damage." "The ability to induce repair introduced DNA lesions was tested in CHO-K1 and CCL-126 cells previously exposed to 50 μg/ml ivermectin and Ivomec during a 80-min treatment pulse… Immediately after treatment with both ivermectin and Ivomect (0h) a significant increase in damaged DNA was observed in a high percentage of the cell population in both cell lines" "The deleterious capacity exerted by both compounds was reflected in the induction of single chain breaks in the DNA from cell lines used." Study #18: Abnormal Sperm Rates Skyrocket In Nigerian Ivermectin Users In a study from Nigeria entitled 'Effects of Ivermectin therapy on the sperm functions of Nigerian onchocerciasis patients', some very concerning findings were published. "We observed significant reduction in the sperm counts and sperm motility of the patients tested. On the morphology there was significant increase in the number of abnormal sperm cells. This took the forms of two heads, double tails, white (albino) sperms and extraordinarily large heads. It is suspected that the above alterations in the already determined parameters of the patients' sperm cells could only have occurred as a result of their treatment with ivermectin." "Sperm with abnormal morphology were also found to have increased after ivermectin therapy" Here is a scatter plot of the % of sperm deemed "abnormal" before (x axis) and after (y axis) the ivermectin dosing. Points above the line indicate a higher % of abnormal sperm after the Ivermectin and points below the line indicate a lower % of abnormal sperm after Ivermectin.       "There was a significant drop in the sperm counts of the patients after their treatment with ivermectin."   We can calculate the total motile count of each patient's sample by multiplying the number of sperm in the sample times the percentage that were swimming properly. O'Conner Ivermectin Rat Carcinogenicity Study In an article called 'Increased Pathology Incidence in the Forestomach of Rats Maintained on a Diet Containing Ivermectin and Given a Single Dose of N-Methyl-N1-Nitro-N-Nitrosoguanidine' by O'Conner et al, they observed additional cancers in mice with a small amount (2 ppm) of ivermectin in their diet given a dose of a carcinogen called N-Methyl-N1-Nitro-N-Nitrosoguanidine. From the abstract: "No tumors or pathological lesions were observed in the forestomach of the control animals or those given ivermectin alone. However, compared to animals receiving MNNG alone, rats maintained on a diet containing ivermectin (2 ppm) and given MNNG… showed an increased number of neoplasms (9/26 vs 3/18; p = 0.30) and a statistically significant fourfold increase in the number of pathological lesions (18/26 vs 3/18; p = 0.002), which include preneoplasia in the forestomach. In all cases, the pathological lesions were more severe in the animals receiving ivermectin and MNNG, compared to those receiving MNNG alone." Source:  "CLASTOGENIC" - 18 Studies Highlighting Ivermectin Induced DNA Breakage and Damage More Relevant Articles Ivermectin, WHO, UN, Merck, The World Bank & Kissinger's World Population Plan Of Action Pig Study Raises MAJOR Questions Of Dangers Of Combining Quercetin & Ivermectin 2 Concerning Studies: CBD & THC Enact Potent P-Glycoprotein Inhibiting Effects, Raising Very Concerning Questions About Heightened Ivermectin Toxicity For Marijuana Users Studies Find Quercetin & Natto K2 INHIBIT P-Glycoprotein; Will This Increase Ivermectin Toxicity Susceptibility?! Ivermectin Is Cytotoxic & Genotoxic (Damaging To Cells And DNA) & Possibly Carcinogenic (Cancer Causing) P-glycoprotein Deficiency (Genetic Or Drug Induced) & Increased Ivermectin Toxicity Ivermectin VS Sperm: 3 Disturbing Studies On Decreased Sperm Counts, Decreased Sperm Motility & Increased % Abnormal Sperm Post-Ivermectin 6 More Animal Ivermectin Studies Showing Negative Fertility Effects! Depopulation?! Grapefruit's Irreversible Inactivation of Key Defense Against Toxic Effects Of Many Drugs (Ivermectin Binary Weapon) Studies Find Quercetin & Natto K2 INHIBIT P-Glycoprotein; Will This Increase Ivermectin Toxicity Susceptibility?! References — Ivermectin, River Blindness, and the Mectizan Program Merck & Co., Inc. "35 Years: The Mectizan® Donation Program." May 25, 2022. Merck — Mectizan Donation Program. Useful for the 1978 Campbell proposal, 1981 human trials, Mohammed Aziz, 1987 donation decision, Roy Vagelos, and program history. Mectizan Donation Program. "History of the Program." The Task Force for Global Health. Accessed August 6, 2026. Mectizan Donation Program — History. Primary program history covering Merck, WHO, William Campbell, Mohammed Aziz, West African trials, and the 1987 commitment to provide ivermectin for river blindness. Mectizan Donation Program. "Overview." The Task Force for Global Health. Accessed August 6, 2026. Mectizan Donation Program — Overview. Useful for the structure of the donation program, Africa, Latin America, Yemen, lymphatic filariasis, annual treatment, and Merck's "as much as needed, for as long as needed" commitment. Merck & Co., Inc. "Merck Commemorates 30 Years of MECTIZAN® Donation Program Progress." November 30, 2017. Merck — 30 Years of Mectizan. Documents the 1987 founding of the program and its later expansion for lymphatic filariasis, including plans to reach up to an additional 100 million people annually. World Health Organization. "Onchocerciasis." December 4, 2025. WHO — Onchocerciasis Fact Sheet. Key source for river blindness, Onchocerca volvulus, blackfly transmission, geographic distribution, mass drug administration, and WHO's current ivermectin strategy. WHO states that ivermectin donated by Merck remains the core population-based treatment strategy. Nobel Prize Outreach. "The 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: Press Release." October 5, 2015. Nobel Prize — 2015 Medicine Prize. Official Nobel source documenting the award to William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura for discoveries leading to therapies against roundworm parasites. Nobel Prize Outreach. "The 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine." 2015. Nobel Prize — Avermectin and Ivermectin Discovery. Especially useful for the discovery chain: Ōmura's Streptomyces cultures → Campbell's parasite research → avermectin → modification into ivermectin → human and veterinary applications. Ōmura, Satoshi. "A Splendid Gift from the Earth: The Origins and Impact of Avermectin." Nobel Lecture, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, December 7, 2015. Satoshi Ōmura — Nobel Lecture. An important first-person scientific history from Ōmura himself describing the origins and impact of avermectin.

Why Is Everyone Getting Explosive Diarrhea?  The Answer Isn't What Most People Think. The Story Begins Decades Before Cyclospora—with The United States, Nazi Germany, Sanitation, And the Long History of Diseases Spread Through Human Waste.  Cyclospora has become one of the most difficult foodborne parasites investigated by public health officials. This episode examines how Cyclospora outbreaks are linked to fresh produce including lettuce, cilantro, basil, raspberries, herbs and packaged salad mixes, and why contaminated food can be so difficult to identify before people become sick. It follows the process of patient interviews, stool testing, epidemiology, product sampling and traceback investigations used to reconstruct outbreaks after contaminated produce has already moved through restaurants, stores, warehouses and international supply chains. A major focus is Taylor Farms de Mexico and the repeated appearance of its Guanajuato operation in Cyclospora investigations. In 2013 a Cyclospora outbreak was traced to salad mix processed by Taylor Farms de Mexico. In 2026 epidemiology and traceback again pointed to Taylor Farms de Mexico lettuce from central Mexico. The episode examines Guanajuato as a major agricultural region facing water scarcity, groundwater depletion, wastewater treatment challenges and the reuse of treated wastewater. It also asks what oversight actually exists for Mexican lettuce entering the United States and whether produce is routinely tested for Cyclospora before crossing the border. The investigation finds that every shipment of Mexican lettuce is not tested for Cyclospora. FDA oversight relies largely on importer verification, farm and facility inspections, preventive controls, targeted sampling and outbreak investigations rather than universal laboratory screening. FDA implemented a validated molecular detection method for Cyclospora on produce beginning around 2018 and expanded laboratory capability by training Mexican government laboratories in 2023. The episode examines why a laboratory test can exist while contaminated produce can still move through the food supply undetected. The program also traces the scientific history of Cyclospora beginning with Richard W. Ashford's 1979 report from Papua New Guinea and follows the parasite through years of uncertainty before it became recognized as Cyclospora cayetanensis. It explores the work of Richard W. Ashford, Graham D. F. Reid, David C. Warhurst, Robert Gilman, Ynes Ortega, Charles Sterling and other researchers, together with the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, the Institute of Primate Research in Kenya, the World Health Organization and international tropical disease research programs. Beyond modern outbreaks, the episode traces the historical roots of sanitation and public health from nineteenth-century Europe and Bavaria through the rise of bacteriology, sewage engineering and wastewater management in the United States. It examines how human waste, sewage sludge and today's biosolids became incorporated into modern agriculture, how wastewater reuse developed in both the United States and Mexico, and how those practices intersect with food safety, irrigation and infectious disease prevention. The program also explores the history of biological warfare research involving diarrheal diseases during World War II and the Cold War, including Nazi Germany, the United States and later military biodefense programs. It distinguishes documented historical research into enteric diseases from the established biology of Cyclospora itself while examining how governments and scientists have long viewed foodborne illness, sanitation and gastrointestinal disease as matters of both public health and national security. Cyclospora remains unusually difficult to study. There is still no routine laboratory culture system, no widely accepted animal model reproducing the complete human infection and no well-established human challenge model. Researchers continue to rely on naturally infected patients, molecular testing, stool examinations, epidemiological investigations and outbreak traceback. Contamination may be scattered unevenly through a field, shipment or salad mix, meaning a negative sample does not prove that the remaining produce is free of the parasite. These limitations help explain why investigators often begin with sick people and work backward toward the food, water, farm and processing facility. The episode ultimately places Cyclospora within the larger history of human feces, sanitation, sewage sludge, biosolids, wastewater reuse, agriculture, tropical medicine, epidemiology and foodborne disease. It examines how modern food production, international trade, environmental infrastructure and public health intersect to allow a microscopic parasite to travel from a contaminated field or water source to consumers hundreds or even thousands of miles away. Clip:  New Dr. Fauci Interview - Insights from Working with Past Presidents - YouTube Bush: I was reminded that evil exists - YouTube President George H. W. Bush discusses US-Iran relations during an primetime press conference W. (2/9) Movie CLIP - You're Not a Kennedy, You're a Bush (2008) HD Music: Bee Gees - Stayin' Alive (Official Video)   Suggested Videos:  5 Spectacular Fails From Germ Theory – Dr Sam Bailey The Truth About Smallpox || Documentary by Katie Sugak (2022)   Brighteon If you are talking about Meghan Markle, less time to think about what is really going on.  MM = 33 Meghan Markle's Family EXPOSED: New DAMNING Discovery Changes Everything The Royal Scam Greedy Greta incase you werent sure.. George Bush IS Charles Manson Timeline and History of Ruling Class Who runs the world the Saturn cult   Disinfection of Water by Chlorine, Peracetic Acid, Ultraviolet and Solar Radiations: A Review   FCE-4079.pdf COVID Backwards In Hebrew Is DIVOC: Possession By An Evil Spirit | Spirit | Before It's News Mapping biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) and BSL-4 laboratories for public health threats reduction | Journal of Public Health | Springer Nature Link IM — How the Government Created Lyme Disease EUGENICS: 'Building 257', The Horrific Secrets of Plum Island | RIELPOLITIK Exposing the Link Between Lyme Disease and Secret U.S. Biowarfare Experiments | SGT Report The Lyme Disease Connection with US/Nazi Legacy Bioweapons Development on Plum Island, Connecticut - Children's Health Defense Pennsylvania Chapter The Lyme Disease Connection with US/Nazi Legacy Bioweapons Development on Plum Island, Connecticut - Children's Health Defense Pennsylvania Chapter "HIV Inserts", Lies & "Lab Leaks" Smallpox: The Historical Myths behind Mandatory Vaccines | Mises Institute Reengineering Humanity | Nature of Healing Bactrim & Bactrim DS: Uses, Dosage, Side Effects Bactrim side effects in elderly adults: Risks and alternatives Cyclosporiasis - Wikipedia Cyclospora Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment Secret Gov Plot to SAVE THEMSELVES In Societal Collapse global-biolabs-report-2023.pdf Google's true origin partly lies in CIA and NSA research grants for mass surveillance Annie Jacobsen - Wikipedia DARPA - Wikipedia The Fort Detrick HIV Lab Leak | Conspiracy Wiki Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories - Wikipedia The Perth Group HIV-AIDS Debate Website The Perth Group - Wikipedia AIDS Report - mycorrections.PDF HIV/AIDS in South African townships - Wikipedia The Yin & Yang of HIV - Part One Dr Sam Bailey – Illuminating Health Virus Mania – Dr Sam Bailey   HIV & AIDS - Is HIV the Cause of AIDS? An interview with Eleni Papadopulos-Eleopulos HIV & AIDS - Do antibody tests prove HIV infection? An interview with Valendar Turner Surgical Glove Practice: The Evidence - Judith Tanner, Hazel Parkinson, 2007 Re: Did Montagnier discover HIV in 1983? | The BMJ The HIV/ AIDS Story is Being Rewritten The Rabies Hoax • Zero-Sum What About Rabies? – Dr Sam Bailey Rabies: The "Virus" of Fear – ViroLIEgy A Layperson's Guide to the PCR Based Epidemic Hoax — Dr Sam Bailey   Adam Weishaupt - Wikipedia American History of the Rothschilds and the Eight Most Powerful Families – The Millennium Report The History of the 'House of Rothschild' (Complete) - EliteInfo.co A Bavarian Illuminati Primer Do you have a psychopath in your life? The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 How they flip sex with hormones:  Hormones Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Tune in: Podcast Links – Psychopath In Your Life Download Pods here - one click and pods load to any device fully titled and ready to listen to or archive:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-14" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-14" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:9f6e5a3f-1d65-493a-b8a5-16cd0b59eecb-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:9f6e5a3f-1d65-493a-b8a5-16cd0b59eecb-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:fe231e7b-f316-473d-9399-fdb11860f116-20" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:fe231e7b-f316-473d-9399-fdb11860f116-20" data-testid= "conversation-turn-42" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8bb8696b-07bb-4839-b1aa-c71073f71c03-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8bb8696b-07bb-4839-b1aa-c71073f71c03-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8bb8696b-07bb-4839-b1aa-c71073f71c03-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8bb8696b-07bb-4839-b1aa-c71073f71c03-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-turn="assistant"> Papua New Guinea Cyclospora Timeline September 16, 1975 Papua New Guinea gains independence from Australia. April 29, 1976 Papua New Guinea becomes a member of the World Health Organization (WHO). August 1976 The WHO Representative Office opens in Port Moresby, only months after independence. The first WHO Country Liaison Officer, appointed in 1974, becomes the first WHO Representative. 1977 The first known human cases of what would later be identified as Cyclospora occur in Papua New Guinea. Patients with prolonged diarrhea are examined, but the organism is unknown. 1978 Additional cases are identified. Researchers continue observing the unusual organism in stool samples. 1979 Dr. R. W. Ashford publishes the landmark paper: "Occurrence of an undescribed coccidian in man in Papua New Guinea." Ashford describes three patients and concludes the organism is an undescribed coccidian parasite, although he cannot yet identify it precisely. This becomes the first published description of what would later be known as Cyclospora cayetanensis. 1980s Similar organisms begin appearing in patients around the world. Different laboratories describe them as: cyanobacterium-like bodies (CLBs) blue-green algae coccidian-like bodies large Cryptosporidium Because the organism is poorly understood, no one realizes these reports are describing the same parasite. 1993 David C. Warhurst and G. D. F. Reid, working with R. W. Ashford, publish work arguing that the mysterious "cyanobacterium-like bodies" reported worldwide are actually the same organism Ashford first described in Papua New Guinea in 1979. Their work helps connect years of scattered reports into a single scientific story. 1993 Ynes Ortega, Charles R. Sterling, Robert H. Gilman, and colleagues formally identify and name the parasite: Cyclospora cayetanensis. Approximately sixteen years after the first recognized human cases in Papua New Guinea, the organism finally receives its official scientific name. Key Historical Observation The WHO Representative Office was already operating in Port Moresby before Cyclospora was first recognized in humans. The office opened in August 1976, the first known cases appeared in 1977, additional cases followed in 1978, and Ashford published the first scientific description in 1979. The principal researchers associated with the early discovery were: Dr. R. W. Ashford – First to recognize and publish the new parasite (1979). Dr. David C. Warhurst – Helped establish that the mysterious organisms being reported internationally were the same parasite first described by Ashford. Dr. G. D. F. Reid – Collaborated with Ashford and Warhurst in linking the worldwide reports. Dr. Ynes Ortega, Dr. Charles R. Sterling, and Dr. Robert H. Gilman – Members of the research group that formally identified and named Cyclospora cayetanensis in 1993. This sequence shows that the discovery of Cyclospora was not a single event but a process that unfolded over roughly 16 years, beginning in Papua New Guinea and ending with international recognition of a new human parasite. Explosive Diarrhea Research, Biological Warfare, Nazi Germany, the United States, and Cyclospora One of the most important lessons from military medicine is that severe diarrheal disease has historically disabled more soldiers than many weapons. Long before antibiotics, armies feared outbreaks of dysentery, cholera, typhoid, and other gastrointestinal diseases because they could incapacitate entire units. That historical reality explains why military organizations became interested in enteric diseases—not because "explosive diarrhea" itself was viewed as a unique weapon, but because pathogens causing severe gastrointestinal illness could remove soldiers from combat. The Military Problem Military planners have long recognized that diarrheal diseases can: Incapacitate large numbers of troops Require significant medical resources Reduce combat readiness Spread rapidly in crowded military environments Modern U.S. military medical literature continues to describe diarrheal disease as one of the most common causes of lost operational effectiveness during deployments. Nazi Germany Nazi Germany conducted biological warfare research during World War II. Research included: • insect vectors • infectious diseases • military applications of biological agents Documents released decades later show that the SS established an Entomological Institute at Dachau in 1942 under Heinrich Himmler. Historians examining surviving research protocols concluded the institute had an offensive biological warfare component. The German program was much smaller than Japan's infamous Unit 731, but it demonstrates that Nazi leadership investigated biological warfare. Did Nazi Germany Develop a Weapon Specifically for Explosive Diarrhea? There is no documented evidence that Nazi Germany produced a dedicated biological weapon whose sole purpose was to cause explosive diarrhea. However, they did study organisms capable of causing severe gastrointestinal disease as part of broader biological warfare research. Military interest centered on whether disease could disable enemy forces.   The United States The United States launched its offensive biological warfare program during World War II. Major centers included: • Camp Detrick (later Fort Detrick) • Dugway Proving Ground • Pine Bluff Arsenal The program expanded greatly after the war. Government histories show U.S. researchers investigated numerous human, animal, and plant pathogens as potential biological warfare agents before President Richard Nixon ended the offensive program in 1969 and ordered destruction of offensive stockpiles. Did the United States Study Diarrheal Diseases? Yes. But it is important to distinguish two different kinds of research. Offensive biological warfare Researchers evaluated many disease agents for military usefulness. Some gastrointestinal pathogens were examined because they could disable troops. Defensive medicine The much larger body of work focused on protecting U.S. troops from naturally occurring diarrheal disease. This includes decades of research on: Shigella Salmonella enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) cholera norovirus Campylobacter The goal was preventing outbreaks among deployed military personnel. Why Diarrhea Matters Militarily A soldier suffering: severe abdominal cramps dehydration vomiting repeated explosive diarrhea is often unable to fight. Historically this has been considered an effective way for disease—not necessarily a weapon—to reduce combat capability. Military medicine has repeatedly documented that diarrheal illness can sideline large numbers of personnel during deployments. Cyclospora Cyclospora is very different. The parasite was first scientifically described in Papua New Guinea in 1979 by Dr. R. W. Ashford after cases observed beginning in the late 1970s. Unlike many bacterial diarrheal diseases: it requires days to weeks outside the human body before becoming infectious it is not spread directly person-to-person under ordinary conditions humans are the only confirmed major reservoir These characteristics make Cyclospora an unlikely biological warfare agent compared with organisms that spread rapidly between people. Why Cyclospora Is Difficult Cyclospora presents a public health challenge because: infections often begin in fields before harvest contamination levels on produce can be extremely low detecting the parasite on food is technically difficult traceback investigations usually rely on epidemiology and supply-chain evidence rather than finding the organism on a food sample These characteristics complicate outbreak investigations but do not indicate intentional contamination. What Is Supported by the Historical Record? Supported by documentary evidence: ✔ Nazi Germany conducted biological warfare research. ✔ The United States conducted an extensive offensive biological warfare program from World War II until 1969. ✔ Both countries studied infectious diseases with military relevance. ✔ Gastrointestinal diseases have long been recognized as capable of incapacitating armies. ✔ Modern military medicine continues extensive research on diarrheal diseases because they remain a major operational problem. Development of modern virology laboratories and high-containment (BSL) facilities. Year Event 1796 Edward Jenner develops the smallpox vaccine, decades before viruses are understood. 1885 Louis Pasteur develops the rabies vaccine, using infected animal nervous tissue. 1892 Dmitri Ivanovsky discovers an infectious agent smaller than bacteria. 1898 Martinus Beijerinck coins the concept of a "virus." 1900–1930s First dedicated virus research laboratories appear in Europe and the United States. 1931 Electron microscope invented, allowing viruses to be visualized. 1933 Human influenza virus isolated in England. 1940s World War II greatly expands government infectious disease research. 1946 The U.S. Army establishes the biological research center at Fort Detrick, Maryland. 1949 The World Health Organization (WHO) is established and begins coordinating international infectious disease work. 1950s Cell culture techniques allow viruses to be grown routinely in laboratories. 1950s–1960s Cold War drives rapid expansion of virology laboratories in the U.S., USSR, U.K., France, and elsewhere. 1967 Marburg virus outbreak among laboratory workers handling imported monkeys highlights laboratory hazards. Late 1960s Modern biological containment laboratory concepts begin to emerge. 1970 CDC opens one of the first maximum-containment laboratories in the United States (precursor to today's BSL-4 facilities). 1974 NIH issues recombinant DNA biosafety guidelines, shaping laboratory safety practices. Mid-1970s Biosafety Levels (BSL-1 through BSL-4) become standardized. 1977 H1N1 influenza reappears; many scientists later argue a laboratory-associated origin is plausible. 1978 Birmingham smallpox laboratory accident kills Janet Parker, increasing attention to laboratory safety. 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax accident at a Soviet military facility. 1980 Smallpox declared eradicated; only a few authorized laboratories retain live virus stocks. 1983 HIV identified, leading to a major expansion of virology research worldwide. 1990s PCR and genetic sequencing transform virus detection and laboratory research. 2002–2003 SARS outbreak. Governments invest heavily in coronavirus research and new BSL-3 laboratories. 2003–2004 Several documented laboratory-acquired SARS infections occur after the outbreak. 2004 China approves construction and expansion of higher-containment laboratories. 2015 Wuhan Institute of Virology publishes research on bat SARS-like coronaviruses and becomes a leading coronavirus research center. 2018 U.S. diplomatic cables express concerns about safety and staffing at the Wuhan Institute of Virology. 2019 COVID-19 first detected in Wuhan, China. 2020–present Global debate over COVID-19 origins leads to increased scrutiny of biosafety, laboratory oversight, and gain-of-function research. 2020s Many countries continue expanding BSL-3 and BSL-4 laboratory capacity for pandemic preparedness. Major milestones in laboratory containment BSL-1 – Basic laboratories for low-risk organisms. BSL-2 – Clinical and diagnostic laboratories handling moderate-risk pathogens. BSL-3 – Designed for airborne pathogens such as tuberculosis and SARS-related viruses. BSL-4 – Maximum containment for the highest-risk pathogens, such as Ebola and Marburg viruses. One thing stands out in the timeline: before the 1940s there were very few dedicated virology laboratories. The major expansion occurred after World War II, accelerated during the Cold War, expanded again after HIV, and grew rapidly after the 2003 SARS outbreak and again following COVID-19. That progression helps explain why most discussions about laboratory biosafety and possible laboratory-associated outbreaks are concentrated in the last 50 years. Countries with BSL-4 laboratories today Argentina Australia Belarus Brazil Canada China Czech Republic Côte d'Ivoire France Gabon Germany Hungary India Italy Japan Kazakhstan Netherlands Philippines Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore South Africa South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan United Kingdom United States ...plus several others with one facility or facilities under construction, for a total of 34 countries. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:fe231e7b-f316-473d-9399-fdb11860f116-34" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:fe231e7b-f316-473d-9399-fdb11860f116-34" data-testid= "conversation-turn-70" data-turn="assistant"> Timeline of Modern High-Containment Virology Laboratories Year Event Why It Matters 1946 Fort Detrick (Maryland, USA) becomes the U.S. Army's biological research center. First major modern U.S. biodefense laboratory. 1950s Virology laboratories expand in the U.S., U.K., USSR, and Europe. Growth driven by polio, influenza, and Cold War research. 1960s CDC builds its first biocontainment laboratories in Atlanta. Beginning of modern containment laboratories. 1967 First BSL-4 laboratory established at CDC (Atlanta, USA). First recognized maximum-containment (BSL-4) laboratory. 1970s Biosafety Levels (BSL-1 through BSL-4) become standardized. Common international laboratory safety framework develops. 1974 VECTOR laboratory established in Koltsovo (USSR). Soviet Union's principal high-containment virology center. 1975 USAMRIID maximum-containment laboratories operational at Fort Detrick. U.S. military BSL-4 capability expands. 1978 Birmingham smallpox laboratory accident (England). Laboratory safety becomes an international concern. 1980s Only a handful of BSL-4 laboratories exist worldwide. High-containment labs remain rare. 1990–2000 New BSL-4 laboratories open in Canada, Australia, France, Germany and the United States. Expansion beyond military and national government laboratories. 2001 September 11 and anthrax attacks. Massive increase in biodefense funding begins. 2003 SARS outbreak. Countries accelerate construction of BSL-3 and BSL-4 laboratories. 2008 U.S. GAO reports rapid expansion of BSL-4 laboratories. Notes that for most of the previous 50 years, the U.S. had only two federal BSL-4 sites (CDC and USAMRIID). 2015 Wuhan National Biosafety Laboratory opens. China's first operational BSL-4 laboratory. 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. Largest worldwide focus on biosafety, biosecurity, and laboratory oversight. 2025 Survey identifies approximately 110 BSL-4 laboratories in 34 countries and about 3,515 BSL-3 laboratories in 149 countries. Largest published global inventory to date. The pattern at a glance 1946–1967 Birth of modern high-containment laboratory research. Almost entirely United States. 1967–1985 Only a few BSL-4 laboratories existed. Primarily: United States Soviet Union 1985–2000 Slow expansion to: Canada Australia France Germany 2001–2003 Two major events changed the trajectory: 9/11 and the anthrax attacks SARS These events led to a sharp increase in investment in high-containment laboratories. 2015–Present China joins the small group operating BSL-4 laboratories. After COVID-19, additional countries began building or expanding BSL-4 facilities. For roughly the first 35 years of the BSL-4 era (1967–2001), only a small number of countries operated these maximum-containment laboratories. The largest worldwide expansion occurred after the 2001 anthrax attacks, after SARS in 2003, and again following COVID-19. The following countries are documented to have used treated sewage sludge (biosolids) on agricultural land or for land reclamation. Europe Austria Belgium Czech Republic Denmark Finland France Germany (now moving toward phosphorus recovery and reducing farmland use) Hungary Ireland Italy Luxembourg Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland (historically used it, banned agricultural use in 2006) Netherlands (historically used it, now essentially does not apply it to farmland, relying mainly on incineration) United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland) North America Canada Mexico South America Brazil Chile Argentina Oceania Australia New Zealand Asia China Japan South Korea Turkey Africa South Africa Egypt Countries that have banned or largely ended agricultural use Switzerland – banned agricultural application in 2006. Netherlands – no longer routinely spreads sewage sludge on farmland; most is incinerated or otherwise processed. Germany – has not banned it outright but is moving away from farmland application through regulations emphasizing phosphorus recovery. So, besides the United States, at least 30–35 countries have used biosolids in some form. The practice is especially widespread in Europe, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Asia, although several countries have recently tightened restrictions or shifted away from agricultural land application because of concerns about contaminants such as PFAS and other persistent chemicals. The modern concept of treated municipal sewage sludge being intentionally processed and marketed for land application, the United States was one of the pioneers. Late 1800s–early 1900s American and European cities rapidly built sewer systems and wastewater treatment plants. As treatment improved, they generated increasing amounts of sewage sludge. American cities introduced technologies such as: Trickling filters Primary sedimentation Activated-sludge treatment (developed in Britain in 1914 but widely adopted in the U.S.) Chlorination Anaerobic digestion These processes greatly increased the volume of treated sludge that cities had to manage. 1900s–1960s Cities experimented with several disposal methods: Dumping into rivers or the ocean Landfilling Incineration Drying Agricultural use At this stage it was generally called sewage sludge, not biosolids. 1970s Environmental laws changed the conversation. The U.S. banned most ocean dumping of sewage sludge and placed greater restrictions on disposal. Utilities increasingly looked to agriculture as a long-term management strategy. 1980s The wastewater industry began promoting treated sludge as a reusable product rather than simply a waste. The term "biosolids" was developed during this period. In 1991, the Water Environment Federation sponsored a branding effort that selected the word biosolids to distinguish treated sewage sludge meeting certain treatment standards from untreated sewage sludge. 1993 The EPA issued the federal 40 CFR Part 503 Rule, establishing national standards for land application, pathogen reduction, and metal limits. From that point forward, "biosolids" became the standard regulatory and industry term in the United States. So your statement is essentially correct, but I'd tighten it slightly: American cities introduced trickling filters, sedimentation, activated-sludge treatment, chlorination, and anaerobic digestion. As wastewater treatment expanded during the early 20th century, increasing amounts of sewage sludge were produced. Cities experimented with dumping, burial, incineration, digestion, drying, and agricultural use. This evolving system became the foundation for what the United States would later rename biosolids in the early 1990s. One important distinction is that the material existed long before the name did. The treatment processes and land application practices developed over decades, while "biosolids" is essentially a 1990s regulatory and public-relations term for treated sewage sludge that meets specified standards.   Chemical Is it dangerous? Main side effects (concentrated exposure) Chlorine (sodium hypochlorite) Yes. Corrosive and irritating. Burning eyes, skin irritation or burns, coughing, wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath. Mixing with acids or ammonia can release toxic chlorine gas, which can cause severe lung injury. Peracetic acid (PAA) Yes. Corrosive and a strong oxidizer. Severe eye irritation or burns, skin burns, nose and throat irritation, coughing, headaches, asthma-like symptoms, difficulty breathing with repeated workplace exposure. Chlorine dioxide Yes. Strong respiratory irritant. Eye irritation, coughing, sore throat, breathing difficulty, lung irritation; high exposures can damage the respiratory tract. Hydrogen peroxide (food-processing concentrations) Yes. Concentrated solutions are corrosive. Skin whitening and burns, eye damage, throat irritation, coughing, stomach irritation if swallowed in concentrated form. Ozone Yes. Toxic to breathe. Coughing, chest pain, throat irritation, reduced lung function, worsened asthma, shortness of breath. Ozone quickly breaks down and is not intended to remain on food. Acidified sodium chlorite Yes. Corrosive when concentrated. Eye and skin burns, respiratory irritation, nausea if ingested in significant amounts, throat irritation. Bottom line Are they dangerous? Yes, especially for workers handling concentrated chemicals. Can they cause side effects? Yes, primarily involving the eyes, skin, and lungs from direct exposure. Do consumers typically receive those exposures? Under normal commercial use, these sanitizers are diluted, monitored, and intended to leave only very small residues on produce. Food safety agencies consider those residual exposures acceptable when the products are used according to regulations. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:259887ee-4b19-4798-96d7-1986ddba1643-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:259887ee-4b19-4798-96d7-1986ddba1643-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-turn="assistant"> GRAS means "Generally Recognized As Safe." It is an FDA regulatory designation for a substance used under its intended conditions—not a sanitizer itself. Besides chlorine and peracetic acid, produce processors may also use: Hydrogen peroxide (GRAS for certain food-processing uses) Ozone Chlorine dioxide Organic acids such as citric acid, lactic acid, and acetic acid (vinegar), which are GRAS substances and may be used in produce washing. Some commercial produce-wash formulations are made entirely from GRAS ingredients. For example, USDA researchers developed one antimicrobial wash whose ingredients are all classified as GRAS by the FDA. One important point for your Cyclospora research: Even when a sanitizer or wash uses only GRAS ingredients, that does not mean it can reliably eliminate Cyclospora from contaminated lettuce or other produce. FDA guidance emphasizes that these antimicrobial washes are mainly intended to keep the wash water from spreading contamination and may reduce surface microbes, but preventing contamination before harvest is the primary control strategy. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:a9ba3c92-6de2-4f5f-84a7-f90c08be1286-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:a9ba3c92-6de2-4f5f-84a7-f90c08be1286-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-turn="assistant"> Date Event 2025 Taylor Farms donated $1 million to MAGA Inc., the principal pro-Trump super PAC. Reports also state the company gave more than $2 million to conservative political committees during 2025. July 16, 2026 FDA publicly announced it was investigating a multistate Cyclospora outbreak linked to shredded iceberg lettuce served at Taco Bell. At that time, 1,644 illnesses had been identified. Interviews in Michigan found 90% of affected Taco Bell customers had eaten iceberg lettuce. FDA also stated its traceback investigation had identified a single supplier of iceberg lettuce from Mexico used by the restaurants where illnesses occurred, although the supplier was not yet publicly named. July 16, 2026 (same day) Taylor Farms executives met with White House and FDA officials to challenge the agencies' handling of the outbreak investigation. July 17, 2026 FDA publicly identified the supplier as Taylor Farms de Mexico. The company announced it was voluntarily removing shredded iceberg lettuce from central Mexico from the market and initiated a recall. July 18, 2026 FDA announced that one lettuce sample associated with the investigation had tested positive for Cyclospora. July 19, 2026 FDA determined that the July 18 laboratory result was a false positive. However, the agency stated this did not change the investigation, explaining that the epidemiologic evidence and traceback investigation continued to identify Taylor Farms de Mexico's shredded iceberg lettuce from central Mexico as the likely source of the outbreak.   One detail that attracted attention during the 2026 Cyclospora outbreak involved the timing of political donations, government meetings, and FDA announcements. In 2025, Taylor Farms donated $1 million to MAGA Inc., the principal pro-Trump super PAC. Reports also stated that the company contributed more than $2 million to conservative political committees during the year. Then, on July 16, 2026, the FDA publicly announced it was investigating a multistate Cyclospora outbreak linked to shredded iceberg lettuce served at Taco Bell. By that point, 1,644 illnesses had been identified. Investigators found that 90 percent of interviewed patients in Michigan had eaten iceberg lettuce, and the FDA said its traceback investigation had already narrowed the source to a single supplier of iceberg lettuce from Mexico, although the supplier's name had not yet been released. Later that same day, Taylor Farms executives met with White House and FDA officials to challenge the agencies' handling of the outbreak investigation. On July 17, the FDA publicly identified the supplier as Taylor Farms de Mexico. The company announced it was voluntarily removing shredded iceberg lettuce from central Mexico from the market and initiated a recall. On July 18, the FDA announced that one lettuce sample associated with the investigation had tested positive for Cyclospora. Then, on July 19, the FDA said that laboratory result was actually a false positive. However, the agency also emphasized that this did not change its overall conclusions. According to the FDA, the epidemiologic evidence and traceback investigation still pointed to Taylor Farms de Mexico's shredded iceberg lettuce from central Mexico as the likely source of the outbreak.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-14" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-14" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:d5e026de-b75b-4f71-bff3-1697eeaac7d8-23" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:d5e026de-b75b-4f71-bff3-1697eeaac7d8-23" data-testid= "conversation-turn-48" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c4b531f5-4029-4985-b328-2cbc7abbe7c6-6" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c4b531f5-4029-4985-b328-2cbc7abbe7c6-6" data-testid= "conversation-turn-14" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a612aea-6cc4-83e8-97b1-4af30d81c70f-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a612aea-6cc4-83e8-97b1-4af30d81c70f-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-14" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a612aea-6cc4-83e8-97b1-4af30d81c70f-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a612aea-6cc4-83e8-97b1-4af30d81c70f-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-28" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:078b652b-c1fa-4aba-a6e0-f2eed067a03f-6" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:078b652b-c1fa-4aba-a6e0-f2eed067a03f-6" data-testid= "conversation-turn-14" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:afa76eed-6c76-4ccc-812b-90d24bad72b3-21" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:afa76eed-6c76-4ccc-812b-90d24bad72b3-21" data-testid= "conversation-turn-44" data-turn="assistant"> Year Event 1743 Mayer Amschel Bauer (later Rothschild) is born on February 23 in the Free Imperial City of Frankfurt am Main, in the Holy Roman Empire. He was not born in Bavaria. His family lived in Frankfurt's Jewish quarter (Judengasse). 1740s Mayer's father, Amschel Moses, was a money changer and merchant. The family home was identified by a red shield ("Zum Roten Schild"), from which the family later derived the surname Rothschild ("red shield"). 1748 Adam Weishaupt is born on February 6 in Ingolstadt, Bavaria. 1750s Weishaupt is educated by the Jesuits after the death of his father. 1760s Mayer Amschel begins working in banking and coin dealing in Frankfurt. The family increasingly adopts the surname Rothschild, replacing Bauer. 1765 Adam Weishaupt earns his doctorate in law at the University of Ingolstadt. 1773 Weishaupt becomes Professor of Canon Law at the University of Ingolstadt, Bavaria. May 1, 1776 Weishaupt founds the Order of the Illuminati in Ingolstadt, Bavaria. 1785 The Bavarian government bans the Illuminati, and Weishaupt flees Bavaria. 1796 Edward Jenner introduces the first successful smallpox vaccine in England. 1800 Thomas Jefferson writes to James Madison, arguing that Weishaupt's use of secrecy reflected the political and religious conditions in Bavaria rather than necessarily his underlying philosophy. 1801 Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse introduces Jenner's smallpox vaccine to the United States. President Thomas Jefferson later strongly supports vaccination and exchanges correspondence with Jenner. 1807 The Kingdom of Bavaria becomes one of the first governments in the world to enact compulsory smallpox vaccination for children. 1813 The U.S. Congress passes the Vaccine Act of 1813, the nation's first federal vaccine law. It was intended to ensure the availability of genuine smallpox vaccine and authorized a federal agent to distribute it. 1822 The Vaccine Act is repealed after problems with contaminated vaccine supplied by the federal vaccine agent. 1827 Boston becomes one of the first U.S. cities to require smallpox vaccination for public school students. 1855 Massachusetts enacts the first statewide law requiring smallpox vaccination for children attending public schools. 1905 The U.S. Supreme Court, in Jacobson v. Massachusetts, rules that states have the constitutional authority to require smallpox vaccination under their police powers. 1922 The U.S. Supreme Court, in Zucht v. King, upholds school vaccination requirements, allowing schools to exclude unvaccinated children even without an active outbreak. United Kingdom Year Event 1796 Edward Jenner develops the first successful smallpox vaccine in Gloucestershire, England. 1798 Jenner publishes An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, describing vaccination against smallpox. 1808 The British government establishes the National Vaccine Establishment to promote free vaccination. Vaccination is encouraged but not compulsory. 1840 The Vaccination Act 1840 provides free smallpox vaccination and prohibits the older practice of variolation (deliberate inoculation with smallpox). 1853 The Vaccination Act 1853 makes smallpox vaccination compulsory for infants within the first few months of life in England and Wales. Parents who refused could be fined. 1867 The Vaccination Act 1867 strengthens enforcement, increases penalties, and extends compulsory vaccination requirements. 1871 Parliament further strengthens enforcement by appointing vaccination officers and tightening compliance. 1898 The Vaccination Act 1898 introduces a "conscientious objector" exemption for parents who sincerely opposed vaccination. 1907 The exemption process is simplified, making it easier for parents to obtain conscientious objector certificates. Comparing the Three Country First Compulsory Vaccination Bavaria 1807 – One of the world's first compulsory childhood smallpox vaccination laws. United Kingdom 1853 – Parliament makes infant smallpox vaccination compulsory in England and Wales. United States 1855 – Massachusetts enacts the first statewide compulsory school vaccination law; no national compulsory vaccination law was ever enacted. One interesting historical point is that Bavaria required compulsory vaccination nearly half a century before Britain and almost 50 years before Massachusetts adopted its statewide school vaccination law. Bavaria is therefore frequently cited in histories of public health as an early pioneer in compulsory vaccination policy. mid-to-late 1800s, many public health leaders increasingly concluded that preventing disease required more than vaccination. The progression was roughly: "Smallpox is devastating—we have a vaccine." (late 1700s–early 1800s) "Cholera seems connected to contaminated water." (John Snow, 1854) "Microorganisms cause many diseases." (Pasteur, 1860s) "Specific microbes cause specific diseases." (Koch, 1870s–1880s) That led to a major shift in public health priorities. Cities began investing in: Clean drinking water. Sewage systems. Safe disposal of human waste. Milk pasteurization. Food inspection. Handwashing and hospital sanitation. In many ways, the late 1800s marked the birth of modern environmental public health. For diseases like cholera and typhoid fever, improving water and sanitation had an enormous impact because those diseases spread through contaminated water or food. For smallpox, however, the situation was different. Smallpox spreads primarily through close person-to-person contact and respiratory droplets, not contaminated drinking water. So cleaning up water would not have eliminated smallpox, although it greatly reduced many other infectious diseases. So a concise historical summary would be: After germ theory, governments increasingly realized that preventing infectious disease required not only vaccines where available, but also clean water, sewage treatment, sanitation, food safety, and hygiene. Those investments dramatically reduced deaths from many infectious diseases, even before antibiotics became available. 1796 — Jenner develops the smallpox vaccine. 1807 — Bavaria requires childhood smallpox vaccination. 1813 — The U.S. passes its first federal Vaccine Act. 1853 — Britain makes infant vaccination compulsory. 1854 — John Snow links cholera to a contaminated water pump in London. 1855 — Massachusetts adopts its first statewide compulsory school vaccination law. 1860s–1880s — Pasteur and Koch establish germ theory. Late 1800s — Cities begin investing heavily in clean water, sewer systems, food safety, and sanitation based on the new scientific understanding. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a6765f8-acc4-83e8-a110-e9edb4773c6c-10" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a6765f8-acc4-83e8-a110-e9edb4773c6c-10" data-testid= "conversation-turn-36" data-turn="assistant"> The House of Wittelsbach was one of Europe's great dynasties, and like the Habsburgs, they built influence through marriages with other royal houses. Their family tree branches across much of Europe. Some of the major marriage and inheritance connections include: Holy Roman Empire The Wittelsbachs produced two Holy Roman Emperors: Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor House of Habsburg Although Bavaria and Austria were often rivals, there were numerous marriages between the Wittelsbachs and the Habsburgs. These marriages were used to strengthen alliances and settle disputes over territory. House of Bourbon The Wittelsbachs also intermarried with the French Bourbons and Bourbon branches in Spain and Naples. House of Hanover Marriages linked the Wittelsbachs with the British royal family through the Hanoverians. House of Savoy Connections were made through marriages with the rulers of Piedmont and later Italy. House of Hohenzollern There were multiple marriages with the ruling family of Prussia and later the German Empire. House of Romanov Several Wittelsbach princesses married into the Russian imperial family. Scandinavian Monarchies Marriage alliances connected the Wittelsbachs with the royal houses of Sweden and Denmark. Greece One of the most notable examples: Otto of Greece, a Wittelsbach prince from Bavaria, became the first King of modern Greece in 1832. Bavaria The main Wittelsbach line ruled: Duchy of Bavaria Electorate of Bavaria Kingdom of Bavaria (1806–1918) During Weishaupt's Lifetime 1748 – Adam Weishaupt is born. 1745–1777 – Bavaria is ruled by Maximilian III Joseph (House of Wittelsbach). 1777–1799 – Charles Theodore (also House of Wittelsbach, Palatinate branch). 1806 – Bavaria becomes a kingdom under Maximilian I Joseph, also a Wittelsbach. The Big Picture By the nineteenth century, Europe's royal families had become so interconnected through marriage that many rulers were cousins. The major dynasties included: House of Wittelsbach (Bavaria) House of Habsburg (Austria) House of Hohenzollern (Prussia/Germany) House of Bourbon (France and Spain) House of Hanover (Britain) House of Romanov (Russia) House of Savoy (Italy) These dynasties frequently intermarried to secure alliances, inherit territories, and strengthen political legitimacy. While the Habsburgs are often associated with the phrase "Let others wage war; you, happy Austria, marry," the Wittelsbachs also participated extensively in this network of dynastic marriages, though they generally did not achieve the same level of continental dominance as the Habsburgs. Year Dynasty What Happened 1917 House of Romanov The Russian Revolution ends more than 300 years of Romanov rule. Tsar Nicholas II abdicates in March 1917. The imperial family is executed in 1918. 1918 House of Habsburg Austria-Hungary collapses after World War I. Emperor Charles I relinquishes participation in government in November 1918, ending Habsburg rule. 1918 House of Wittelsbach The German Revolution reaches Bavaria. King Ludwig III is deposed, ending more than 700 years of Wittelsbach rule in Bavaria (1180–1918). 1918 House of Hohenzollern Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates, ending the German Empire and Hohenzollern monarchy in Prussia and Germany.   Romanovs (Russia) Habsburgs (Austria-Hungary) Hohenzollerns (Germany/Prussia) Wittelsbachs (Bavaria) Can These Disease-Causing Organisms Be Grown in the Laboratory? Disease Organism Type Can it be grown or maintained in the laboratory? COVID-19 Virus Yes (cell culture) Influenza Virus Yes HIV/AIDS Virus Yes Smallpox* Virus Yes (only in two officially authorized high-security laboratories) Polio Virus Yes Measles Virus Yes Mumps Virus Yes Rubella Virus Yes Chickenpox Virus Yes Rabies Virus Yes Hepatitis A Virus Yes Hepatitis B Virus Yes Hepatitis C Virus Yes Norovirus Virus Limited (much more difficult than most viruses) Rotavirus Virus Yes Ebola Virus Yes (high-security laboratory) Marburg Virus Yes (high-security laboratory) Mpox Virus Yes Yellow Fever Virus Yes Dengue Virus Yes Zika Virus Yes West Nile Virus Yes Chikungunya Virus Yes RSV Virus Yes Cholera Bacterium Yes Typhoid Fever Bacterium Yes Tuberculosis Bacterium Yes (slow-growing) Plague Bacterium Yes Diphtheria Bacterium Yes Pertussis (Whooping Cough) Bacterium Yes Tetanus Bacterium Yes Lyme Disease Bacterium Yes (specialized methods) Syphilis Bacterium Limited (cannot be routinely cultured like most bacteria) Gonorrhea Bacterium Yes Shigellosis Bacterium Yes Salmonellosis Bacterium Yes Pathogenic E. coli Bacterium Yes Cyclospora Parasite (Protozoan) No routine laboratory culture system Malaria Parasite (Protozoan) Yes Giardia Parasite (Protozoan) Yes Cryptosporidium Parasite (Protozoan) Limited (research methods exist, but routine culture remains difficult) Toxoplasmosis Parasite (Protozoan) Yes Amebiasis Parasite (Protozoan) Yes Ascariasis (Roundworm) Parasitic Worm Limited Hookworm Parasitic Worm Yes (specialized systems) Whipworm Parasitic Worm Yes (specialized systems) Tapeworm Infections Parasitic Worm Limited (often requires animal hosts) Schistosomiasis Parasitic Worm Yes (complex life cycle) Histoplasmosis Fungus Yes Valley Fever (Coccidioidomycosis) Fungus Yes Candidiasis Fungus Yes Aspergillosis Fungus Yes Bottom Line Most viruses can be grown in living cells under laboratory conditions. Nearly all bacteria can be cultured, although a few require specialized methods. Most fungi can be grown in the laboratory. Many parasites can be maintained in specialized laboratory systems, though some require living hosts. Cyclospora remains one of the notable exceptions. Despite decades of research, there is still no routine laboratory culture system that reliably grows Cyclospora cayetanensis, making it significantly more difficult to study than most other major human pathogens. * Live variola (smallpox) virus research is restricted to two WHO-authorized repositories under international oversight *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:afa76eed-6c76-4ccc-812b-90d24bad72b3-21" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:afa76eed-6c76-4ccc-812b-90d24bad72b3-21" data-testid= "conversation-turn-44" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a6765f8-acc4-83e8-a110-e9edb4773c6c-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a6765f8-acc4-83e8-a110-e9edb4773c6c-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-22" data-turn="assistant"> During all of that: Germ theory had not yet been established. Viruses had not been discovered. No one knew what caused smallpox at the microscopic level. Instead, physicians relied on observation. They had seen for centuries that: smallpox spread from person to person, people who survived it rarely got it again, cowpox infection seemed to protect against smallpox. That empirical evidence was enough for Jenner's vaccine to gain acceptance long before anyone understood why it worked. The major scientific milestones came later: 1854 – John Snow links cholera to contaminated water (still before germ theory was widely accepted). 1860s – Louis Pasteur develops germ theory. 1870s–1880s – Robert Koch identifies specific disease-causing bacteria. 1892 – The first virus is discovered (tobacco mosaic virus). 1906 – Smallpox is recognized as being caused by a filterable virus, though it could not yet be seen with microscopes. When Bavaria passed its compulsory vaccination law in 1807, the public justification was not, "We know germs cause disease." Rather, it was essentially: "We know from experience that vaccinated people are far less likely to get smallpox, and smallpox kills many children." The policy rested on observed outcomes, not on an understanding of microbiology. Germ theory and virology would not provide that scientific explanation until decades later. Disease Can be grown or maintained in a lab? Best-supported origin COVID-19 Yes Origin still under investigation. Natural spillover and research-related incident remain discussed; no scientific consensus has resolved the question. Influenza Yes Wild aquatic birds (natural reservoir) HIV/AIDS Yes Non-human primates in Africa (cross-species transmission) Smallpox Yes* Believed to have evolved from an ancestral poxvirus centuries to millennia ago Polio Yes Human virus with ancient origins Measles Yes Evolved from an ancestral cattle virus (rinderpest-like ancestor) Mumps Yes Human virus; ancient origin unknown Rubella Yes Human virus; origin uncertain Chickenpox Yes Ancient human virus Rabies Yes Ancient virus circulating in mammals Hepatitis A Yes Human virus; ancient origin Hepatitis B Yes Ancient virus affecting humans Hepatitis C Yes Human virus; exact ancient origin uncertain Norovirus Limited Human virus with animal relatives Rotavirus Yes Animal and human strains; evolved naturally Ebola Yes Believed to originate in bats Marburg Yes Egyptian fruit bats Mpox Yes African rodents and other wildlife Yellow fever Yes African primates and mosquitoes Dengue Yes Primates and mosquitoes Zika Yes Primates and mosquitoes West Nile Yes Wild birds and mosquitoes Chikungunya Yes Primates and mosquitoes RSV Yes Human virus; evolved naturally Cholera Yes Environmental bacterium in aquatic ecosystems Typhoid fever Yes Human-adapted bacterium Tuberculosis Yes Ancient human and animal bacterium Plague Yes Rodents and fleas Diphtheria Yes Human bacterium Pertussis Yes Human bacterium Tetanus Yes Soil bacterium Lyme disease Yes Wildlife reservoirs (especially rodents) and ticks Syphilis Limited Human bacterium; exact historical origin debated Gonorrhea Yes Human bacterium Shigellosis Yes Human bacterium Salmonellosis Yes Animals, birds, reptiles, and environment Pathogenic E. coli Yes Intestinal bacteria of humans and animals Cyclospora No routine culture system Humans are the only confirmed major reservoir; exact evolutionary origin remains uncertain Malaria Yes Protozoan parasite with ancient origins involving primates and mosquitoes Giardia Yes Parasite found in humans and many mammals Cryptosporidium Limited Parasite of humans and animals Toxoplasmosis Yes Cats are the definitive host Amebiasis Yes Human parasite Roundworm Limited Human parasite Hookworm Yes (specialized) Human and animal parasite Whipworm Yes (specialized) Human parasite Tapeworms Limited Animals and humans Schistosomiasis Yes (complex life cycle) Freshwater snails and mammals Histoplasmosis Yes Soil enriched with bird or bat droppings Valley fever Yes Desert soil Candidiasis Yes Normal human microbiome Aspergillosis Yes Environmental mold (soil, compost, vegetation) Notes Smallpox: Live virus research is restricted to two WHO-authorized repositories. COVID-19: The origin remains scientifically unresolved. There is broad agreement that SARS-CoV-2 existed by late 2019, but there is not a settled scientific consensus between a natural zoonotic spillover and a research-related incident. Cyclospora: This is one of the most unusual organisms on the list. It cannot be routinely cultured in the laboratory, and humans are the only confirmed major reservoir. Despite decades of research, many aspects of its biology remain more difficult to study than those of most bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Diseases spread through human feces, contaminated water, contaminated food, inadequate sewage disposal, or poor handwashing. The most familiar examples are: Cholera — strongly associated with sewage-contaminated water or food. Typhoid fever — caused by Salmonella Typhi, which is shed by infected people and spreads through contaminated food or water. Dysentery and shigellosis — spread when microscopic amounts of human feces contaminate hands, food, water, or surfaces. Hepatitis A — transmitted through contaminated food or water or close fecal–oral contact. WHO specifically lists contaminated food and water as major transmission routes. Polio — primarily spreads through the fecal–oral route, especially where sewage disposal and clean water systems are inadequate. Cyclospora — human feces contaminate water, soil, or produce; the parasite must mature in the environment before it becomes infectious. Giardiasis — commonly acquired from fecally contaminated water, food, hands, or surfaces. Cryptosporidiosis — spreads through contaminated drinking water, pools, food, animals, and fecal contact. It is particularly difficult because the parasite is resistant to ordinary chlorine levels. Norovirus — spreads extremely easily through contaminated food, water, hands, surfaces, vomit, and feces. Rotavirus — a major fecal–oral diarrheal disease, especially among infants and young children. Pathogenic E. coli infections — certain strains spread through fecally contaminated food, water, animals, or hands. Salmonellosis — often associated with contaminated food and animals, but sanitation and hygienic food handling are central to prevention. Intestinal worms, including roundworm, whipworm, and hookworm — strongly linked to inadequate sanitation, contaminated soil, and unsafe disposal of feces. WHO summarizes the major group as cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, intestinal worm infections, and polio. HIV is different HIV is not considered a sanitation disease. It is transmitted through particular body fluids—principally blood, semen, vaginal and rectal fluids, and breast milk. It is not spread through sewage, drinking water, food, toilets, ordinary contact, or poor municipal sanitation. Sanitation can still matter greatly to people with HIV because impaired immunity may make contaminated water and food more dangerous, but sanitation failure is not the route by which HIV itself spreads. Other famous diseases not primarily sanitation-related Smallpox, measles, influenza, COVID-19, tuberculosis, chickenpox, and whooping cough are mainly respiratory or close-contact diseases. Malaria, yellow fever, dengue, Lyme disease, and West Nile virus are vector-borne diseases involving mosquitoes or ticks. Poor water management can increase mosquito breeding, but that is different from fecal contamination and sewage transmission. Rabies is transmitted primarily through the saliva of infected animals. Hepatitis B and hepatitis C are mainly bloodborne; hepatitis B can also spread sexually and during childbirth. Unlike hepatitis A, they are not primarily diseases of contaminated food, water, or sewage. The core division for your topic is: Some diseases spread because people breathe or touch an infected person. Others spread because human or animal waste enters water, food, soil, or the hands of another person. Cyclospora belongs squarely in that second category. It is not merely a "lettuce disease." Lettuce is one possible delivery vehicle after a sanitation failure has allowed human fecal contamination somewhere in the chain. The best-known infectious diseases by the type of organism that causes them. Disease Organism Type COVID-19 Virus (SARS-CoV-2) Influenza (flu) Virus HIV/AIDS Virus (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) Smallpox Virus (Variola virus) Polio Virus Measles Virus Mumps Virus Rubella Virus Chickenpox Virus (Varicella-zoster virus) Shingles Virus (Varicella-zoster virus) Rabies Virus Hepatitis A Virus Hepatitis B Virus Hepatitis C Virus Norovirus Virus Rotavirus Virus Ebola Virus Marburg Virus Mpox (formerly monkeypox) Virus Yellow fever Virus Dengue Virus Zika Virus West Nile Virus Chikungunya Virus Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Virus *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:afa76eed-6c76-4ccc-812b-90d24bad72b3-8" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:afa76eed-6c76-4ccc-812b-90d24bad72b3-8" data-testid= "conversation-turn-18" data-turn="assistant"> . Disease Vaccine? Cholera Yes (oral vaccines available) Typhoid fever Yes Hepatitis A Yes Polio Yes Rotavirus Yes (given to infants) Shigellosis (dysentery) No licensed vaccine Cyclospora No Giardia No human vaccine Cryptosporidiosis No Norovirus No licensed vaccine (vaccines are in development) Pathogenic E. coli No general human vaccine Salmonellosis (non-typhoidal) No widely used human vaccine Intestinal worms No licensed human vaccines So, of the major sanitation-associated diseases on that list: Vaccines exist: Cholera, Typhoid, Hepatitis A, Polio, Rotavirus. No licensed human vaccine: Shigella, Cyclospora, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Norovirus, most E. coli, most Salmonella infections, and intestinal worms. That highlights an important historical point. For diseases where no vaccine exists, prevention relies heavily on: clean drinking water sewage treatment food safety hand hygiene and sanitation. Cyclospora Host Specificity: Why Scientists Study Future Possibilities Even Without Evidence of a Current Host Jump One question that naturally arises when studying Cyclospora cayetanensis is whether scientists should investigate scenarios that have never been observed, such as the parasite expanding its host range beyond humans. The answer is yes. This type of forward-looking research is a normal part of infectious disease science and public health preparedness. The Scientific Process Is Not Limited to Today's Reality Scientists generally work on three levels. First, they document what is currently known. For Cyclospora cayetanensis, the current evidence indicates that humans are the only confirmed natural reservoir. The parasite causes illness in humans and is primarily transmitted through food or water contaminated with human feces. Second, scientists try to understand why current observations are true. For Cyclospora, this includes questions such as: Why does it appear restricted to humans? What biological mechanisms determine host specificity? Could there be unidentified animal hosts? Why has an animal reservoir not been confirmed? These questions seek to understand the parasite's biology rather than merely describing it. Third, scientists project possible future scenarios. This is where preparedness research begins. Researchers routinely ask: What if our current understanding is incomplete? What if an unknown host exists? What if environmental pressures alter transmission? How would surveillance detect a change before it becomes a public health problem? These questions are intended to reduce uncertainty before a crisis develops. Cyclospora Research Already Reflects This Mindset Although Cyclospora cayetanensis is widely regarded as human-specific, published scientific reviews demonstrate that researchers continue examining the possibility that animals could play a role in its ecology. A comprehensive 2021 review evaluated every available report of Cyclospora cayetanensis in animals. The authors concluded that no confirmed natural animal reservoir has been demonstrated but emphasized that additional research is needed to determine whether animals may transport oocysts or contribute to contamination of food, water, or soil. They specifically recommended further molecular studies rather than assuming the question has been settled. Likewise, more recent reviews continue examining host specificity and the possibility of zoonotic transmission, indicating that scientists still consider these legitimate research questions rather than closed subjects. Preparedness Does Not Mean Prediction One misunderstanding in discussions of infectious diseases is the assumption that studying a possibility implies someone believes it is about to occur. Scientific preparedness works differently. Researchers often investigate events that have never happened simply because the consequences could be significant if they ever did. Examples include: Could avian influenza adapt for sustained human transmission? Could Ebola spread beyond traditional outbreak regions? Could mosquitoes expand the range of tropical diseases? Could coronaviruses spill over from wildlife into humans? Many of these questions were investigated years before some became major public health concerns. Cyclospora fits within the same philosophy of preparedness, even though its biology differs substantially from respiratory viruses. Why Cyclospora Research Has Progressed Slowly Unlike organisms such as Salmonella or E. coli, Cyclospora remains unusually difficult to study. Major limitations include: inability to routinely culture the parasite in the laboratory, lack of a reliable experimental animal model, dependence on oocysts collected from infected humans, incomplete understanding of several stages of its life cycle. Federal food safety agencies have acknowledged that these limitations significantly restrict research progress and complicate outbreak investigations. As a result, many investigators remain focused on answering basic biological questions that have already been resolved for many other foodborne pathogens. Host Specificity Remains an Active Scientific Question Current evidence continues to support humans as the only confirmed natural host of Cyclospora cayetanensis. However, the scientific literature shows that researchers continue asking questions such as: Why is host specificity so narrow? Are there overlooked animal reservoirs? Can animals mechanically transport infectious oocysts? How should surveillance detect unexpected ecological changes? These questions represent standard scientific inquiry rather than evidence that researchers are attempting to create a new host range. Conclusion The published literature shows that Cyclospora researchers continue investigating host specificity because important biological questions remain unanswered. Current evidence supports humans as the only confirmed natural reservoir, but scientists continue studying animals, environmental transmission, and host biology because preparedness depends on understanding what is known, what remains uncertain, and how future changes—however unlikely—would be recognized if they occurred. This approach is consistent with the broader philosophy of infectious disease research: study potential future risks before they become public health emergencies, while distinguishing clearly between documented evidence and hypothetical scenarios. The Official History of Smallpox The legend of smallpox and its eradication as told by most textbooks and virtually the whole medical establishment goes something like this: from about the sixteenth century, Europe was ravaged by periodic epidemics of smallpox (variola major), a disease that caused pustules to erupt all over the skin and very often, in approximately a fifth of all cases, led to death. Those who survived were often scarred for life (pockmarked). Early attempts to combat it through "variolation," i.e., inoculation of healthy adults with puss from infected individuals, proved ineffective—while those who survived this treatment were immune, the practice also served to keep the disease alive and circulating in the population. Then, in 1796, the heroic Dr. Edward Jenner made the crucial discovery: anecdotal evidence suggested that milkmaids did not contract smallpox and Dr. Jenner surmised that contact with cattle had exposed them to cowpox (variola vaccinia), a disease that was much milder in humans. He therefore experimented with inoculating children with cowpox, and when he later exposed the same to smallpox through variolation, they proved to be immune. The medical establishment, in the form of the Royal Society, dismissed the good Dr. Jenner, but nothing daunted, he proceeded to promote his new treatment of "vaccination" and quickly received support from enlightened doctors and statesmen, who sponsored his scheme. Thousands were vaccinated in Great Britain within a couple of years, and the treatment spread to other European countries. Cyclospora was already trending in the wrong direction before the FoodNet surveillance change. That's one reason the timing has drawn attention. Year What was happening 1999 Cyclospora became a nationally notifiable disease in the U.S. 2013 Large multistate outbreak linked to imported salad mix from Mexico. 2018–2021 FDA expanded Cyclospora research, testing methods, and released a dedicated prevention and research action plan because recurring produce outbreaks had become a concern. 2015–2019 FoodNet data later analyzed by CDC researchers showed cases had been increasing, prompting discussion of prevention gaps. 2024 A peer-reviewed CDC-supported analysis concluded that U.S. Cyclospora cases had increased in recent years and evaluated FoodNet data specifically because of that trend. July 1, 2025 FoodNet changed its surveillance policy. Cyclospora became optional within the CDC-led FoodNet active surveillance program. 2026 One of the largest Cyclospora outbreaks on record occurred, leading to renewed criticism of the surveillance changes and calls from some experts and lawmakers to restore broader monitoring. What stands out is that the policy change did not occur during a period when Cyclospora was disappearing. The published literature already described an upward trend in cases and recurring produce outbreaks. That does not prove the surveillance change caused the 2026 outbreak. Those are separate questions. But the chronology is accurate: Cases had been increasing for years. FDA had increased research efforts because Cyclospora was becoming a larger problem. FoodNet then made Cyclospora surveillance optional in July 2025. A major nationwide outbreak followed in 2026. Fort Detrick bioweapons theory Claimed HIV was created or modified at Fort Detrick, Maryland. Suggested it either escaped accidentally or was deliberately released. The allegation was widely amplified by Soviet and East German disinformation campaigns in the 1980s. WHO smallpox vaccination theory Proposed that the WHO's global smallpox eradication campaign (roughly 1967–1977) unintentionally triggered the AIDS epidemic. Variations suggested contaminated vaccine lots, immune effects, or problems with vaccination techniques. It attracted attention in the 1980s but did not become the accepted scientific explanation. Oral polio vaccine (OPV) theory Suggested that experimental oral polio vaccines used in Central Africa during the late 1950s were contaminated with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). This hypothesis received considerable scientific attention and was investigated extensively. Later genetic analyses and testing of archived vaccine samples did not support it, and it is not the prevailing explanation today. African monkey exposure (zoonotic theory) Proposed HIV crossed from non-human primates into humans through activities such as hunting and butchering bushmeat. This evolved into today's mainstream zoonotic explanation, supported by genetic and evolutionary studies indicating multiple cross-species transmission events. Population-control theories Claimed HIV was intentionally created to reduce populations or target particular demographic groups. Various versions alleged different targets, including gay men, Black communities, or African populations. No credible evidence has established these claims. Contaminated blood or vaccine theories Suggested HIV spread through contaminated blood products or vaccination programs. While contaminated blood products did transmit HIV after the virus was already circulating, this is different from claims about the virus's original emergence. Why so many theories? The early 1980s created an environment where many explanations flourished because: AIDS was new and frightening. The cause was initially unknown. The Cold War encouraged suspicion between rival governments. Governments had documented histories of secrecy in areas such as biological weapons and human experimentation. Different political groups often interpreted the epidemic through their own ideological lens. One interesting historical difference is that HIV generated numerous competing origin theories within just a few years of being recognized, whereas Cyclospora has not. Discussion around Cyclospora has focused far more on contamination pathways, food safety, sanitation, and outbreak investigation than on competing theories about the organism's origin. 1906 — Riems Island Institute (Germany) Founded on Riems Island in the Baltic Sea near Greifswald, Germany. Originally established as the Royal Prussian Institute for Research on Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Became one of the world's oldest major centers for animal infectious disease research. Today known as the Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut. 1916 — Porton Down (United Kingdom) Established near Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. Originally created during World War I to study chemical warfare. Later expanded into biological defense research. Remains the UK's principal defense science laboratory. 1943 — Fort Detrick (United States) Established in Frederick, Maryland during World War II. Became the headquarters of the U.S. biological warfare program. After 1969, shifted primarily to biodefense and infectious disease research. 1949 — Sverdlovsk-19 (Soviet Union) Secret military biological weapons facility established near Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg), Russia. Became one of the Soviet Union's principal offensive biological weapons research and production sites. In 1979, an accidental anthrax release exposed the existence of the program. 1954 — Plum Island Animal Disease Center (United States) Opened on Plum Island, off Long Island, New York. Built to study foreign animal diseases affecting livestock. Its primary mission was agricultural biosecurity rather than human disease research. Operations later moved to the National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility in Manhattan, Kansas. Timeline 1906 — Riems Island Institute, Germany (animal infectious disease research) 1916 — Porton Down, United Kingdom (chemical warfare, later biological defense) 1943 — Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA (U.S. biological warfare program) 1949 — Sverdlovsk-19, Soviet Union (offensive biological weapons program) 1954 — Plum Island Animal Disease Center, New York, USA (foreign animal diseases) Feature HIV (hypothetical) Lyme disease (hypothetical) Cyclospora Primary spread Human-to-human Tick vector Human fecal contamination of food or water Stealth Long latent period Often difficult to diagnose early Often recognized only after outbreaks Field detection Blood testing Tick ecology, blood tests No routine practical pre-harvest field test Environmental stage No Tick life cycle Oocysts mature in the environment Human reservoir Yes No Yes (current evidence indicates humans are the primary reservoir) Foodborne No No Yes Waterborne Limited No Yes Public reaction Global fear Chronic illness debates Usually tied to contaminated produce Prevention challenge Behavior, blood screening Tick control Sanitation, irrigation water, produce contamination What makes Cyclospora unusual compared with the other two is not necessarily how severe it is, but where the bottleneck lies. HIV is generally detected in infected people through laboratory testing. Lyme disease can be difficult to diagnose, but researchers understand its vector (ticks) and the bacterium involved. Cyclospora is often identified after people become sick, while preventing contamination before harvest is much harder because there is no widely used routine field certification test for crops. That's a distinctive feature. It means outbreak investigations often rely on epidemiology and traceback after illnesses have already occurred, rather than detecting contamination in the field before food reaches consumers. Another contrast is the transmission chain: HIV: person → person. Lyme: tick → person. Cyclospora: infected person → feces → environment → food or water → another person. That environmental maturation step is one reason Cyclospora behaves differently from many other foodborne pathogens. From a historical perspective, if you were comparing these three simply as research subjects, all have attracted sustained scientific attention, but for different reasons: HIV because of its global mortality and transmission. Lyme because of its chronic manifestations, ecology, and diagnostic challenges. Cyclospora because of repeated produce-associated outbreaks and the persistent difficulty of preventing contamination at the agricultural stage. Technically, all three organisms could potentially be studied, manipulated, or engineered in a laboratory. HIV — Modern molecular biology makes it technically possible to manipulate retroviruses in laboratory settings. However, the ability to do so is not evidence that HIV originated that way. Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) — The bacterium can be cultured and genetically manipulated in research laboratories. That means laboratory modification is technically possible, but there is no established evidence that Lyme disease originated from laboratory creation. Cyclospora cayetanensis — This one is different. There is no publicly demonstrated, routine laboratory culture system for Cyclospora comparable to what exists for many bacteria or viruses. Researchers have struggled to maintain its life cycle in the lab, which has slowed research. Understanding the Biological Cycles of Lyme Disease and Cyclospora One of the easiest ways to become confused about infectious diseases is to mix together two separate questions: Where did the organism originate? How does the organism spread once it exists? Those are not the same question. A scientist may debate where an organism first came from, whether it evolved naturally, was first recognized after decades of being overlooked, or even whether someone believes it originated in a laboratory. Regardless of the answer, once the organism exists outside the laboratory, it no longer has the freedom to spread however it wants. It must follow its own biology. Lyme Disease Lyme disease provides a useful example. Imagine, purely as a hypothetical exercise, that someone created or discovered a new Lyme bacterium in a laboratory. Simply releasing a test tube containing the bacteria into a forest would not automatically create an epidemic. The bacterium would first have to enter its normal biological cycle. It would need to infect ticks. Those ticks would feed on mice, birds, or other suitable wildlife. Additional ticks would acquire the bacterium when feeding on those infected animals. Eventually, infected ticks would bite people. Only then would humans become infected. In other words, regardless of where the bacterium originated, it must still obey the tick-based transmission cycle. The tick is not simply carrying the organism like dirt on its feet. It is an active biological vector that feeds on blood and moves the bacterium between animals and humans. Cyclospora Cyclospora works very differently. Imagine, again as a hypothetical exercise, that someone created or discovered Cyclospora in a laboratory. Dumping a flask containing Cyclospora into a lettuce field would not automatically create a sustained human outbreak. Cyclospora must also follow its own biological rules. Humans must first become infected. Those infected people shed immature oocysts in their feces. Those oocysts are not immediately infectious. They must remain in the environment for days to weeks while they mature. After maturing, they can contaminate food or water. Another person becomes infected only after consuming those mature oocysts. Just as Lyme disease must follow the tick cycle, Cyclospora must follow the human-environment-food transmission cycle. Why Lettuce Is Not the Tick At first glance, it is tempting to compare lettuce to a tick because both can be associated with the transmission of disease. However, biologically they perform very different roles. A tick is a living organism that feeds on blood and participates directly in the natural transmission cycle of the pathogen it carries. Because it plays an active biological role in transmitting disease from one host to another, it is considered a biological vector. Lettuce does none of those things. It does not become infected with Cyclospora, it does not help the parasite reproduce, and it does not alter the parasite biologically in any way. Instead, the surface of the lettuce simply becomes contaminated after mature Cyclospora oocysts are deposited on it. The lettuce then serves as a passive vehicle, carrying those oocysts until the produce is eaten. A useful way to think about the difference is this: in Lyme disease, the tick is an active biological delivery mechanism because it is part of the organism's life cycle and transmission. In Cyclospora infections, contaminated produce serves as a passive delivery mechanism. The lettuce is not part of the parasite's biology; it is simply the surface that transports the infectious stage from the environment to the person who consumes it. Although both the tick and contaminated lettuce ultimately help a pathogen reach a human host, they do so through fundamentally different biological processes. The Important Distinction This is one of the most important concepts to understand. The origin of an organism and its transmission cycle are two separate questions. Even if someone were to propose an unusual origin for a pathogen, once that organism exists outside the laboratory, it is still governed by biology. It cannot ignore the rules of its own life cycle. Lyme disease still depends on ticks and animal reservoirs to maintain its natural transmission cycle. Cyclospora still depends on infected humans shedding oocysts, those oocysts maturing in the environment, and contamination of food or water before another person can become infected. Every infectious organism is constrained by its own biology. It must spread according to the mechanisms that allow it to survive and reproduce. Understanding this distinction helps separate two very different scientific questions. One question asks where an organism originated. The other asks how that organism spreads once it exists. Those are related questions, but they are not the same question, and the answer to one does not automatically determine the answer to the other. Even more damning, in an article in the Journal of Degenerative Diseases, Marjorie Tietjen reported that 60% of chronic Lyme patients are actually co-infected with several strains of mycoplasma, the most common one being "mycoplasma fermentens" which is patented by the U.S. Army and army pathologist Dr. Lo; Pathogenic mycoplasma, U.S. Patent 5,242,820 issued Sept. 7, 1993. The outbreak and concentration of Lyme Disease in this country centers around that place. The CDC admits that 95% of cases of Lyme come from just 14 states, the majority of which are located around Plum Island. A Layperson's Guide to the PCR Based Epidemic Hoax — Dr Sam Bailey Transcript Sam Bailey ➝ 00:00 Over and over again, we hear the media stating how many people have tested positive for COVID-19. The problem is that this makes no sense at all. Today I'm going to explain why, as we dig deeper into PCR tests once again, and have a look behind the curtain of this COVID pandemic. [music] Sam Bailey ➝ 00:22 The purpose of using tests and clinical medicine is to distinguish between having or not having a particular condition or disease. Sam Bailey ➝ 00:31 For example, as a patient with chest pain, having or not having a heart attack. As a woman who missed her period, pregnant or not. But a test and a condition are not the same thing. I've never had a woman come into my clinic and say, I think I might be positive for pregnancy. She either has a positive or negative pregnancy test and her condition as either pregnant or not pregnant. Sam Bailey ➝ 00:54 All tests detect something. Let's call it the object of interest and most go further and determine how much. For example, we may check the blood concentrations of glucose and cholesterol. These are direct tests, meaning the object of interest is the test, but there are many indirect tests where what is being measured as a reliable surrogate for the object of interest. Sam Bailey ➝ 01:17 For example, when you have a heart attack, a doctor will measure an enzyme [troponin] that leaks from your damaged heart muscle cell, rather than chopping out a piece of your heart muscle to examine it under a microscope. Some tests such as home pregnancy tests are classified as positive or negative. Pregnancy tests become positive at a certain threshold of hormone [human chorionic gonadotropin] being detected in the urine, which had been reliably established over a long period of time. We use indirect tests because they are simple, safe, quick and cheap, but indirect have a caveat – before they are introduced into routine clinical practice with real patients, it is absolutely essential to determine how well they match the object of interest. There are long established scientific methods for doing this. Obviously this involves evaluating the test against the object of interest whose presence or absence is determined independently of the test. Sam Bailey ➝ 02:13 So now that we've established the rules, let's get into COVID-19. The mainstream theory is that a new virus called SARS-CoV-2 is the cause of a new disease called COVID-19. The test for SARS-CoV-2 is not for the whole virus, the complete sublight microscopic particle itself. Perhaps most familiar is this computer generated image that we see on the news. The test is supposed to detect a 1% fragment of an RNA molecule, its genome said to reside inside the virus particle. Based on its detection, a person is deemed infected with the virus SARS-CoV-2, because this tiny fragment is regarded as defecto for a hundred percent of the viruse's RNA. It could be seen as finding a horse like hair is evidence of the horse itself. This is problematic for three reasons. First while there are many papers revealing the existence of the viral RNA and the presence of corona virus like particles on electron micrographs. There are none proving that the RNA comes from inside those particles. In fact, there is now a 225,000 Euro prize for proof of isolation of the virus and it's contained genome sequence. Second because no test is a hundred percent reliable, the RNA detected by the PCR may not be the 1% of the viral genome. Third, since there are no reports of RT-PCR evaluated against the virus itself, no one knows how many people who test positive for the virus are actually infected with the virus. It's like, we've found the horse hair, but can't say anything about the horse or the jockey, not a good situation, but this is what happens when scientists, for whatever reasons, cut corners and ignore the basics for establishing test parameters. The detonator for the worldwide explosion of so-called COVID-19 PCR testing was the Corman-Drosten group paper published on 23rd of January 2020 and critically the paper was accepted for publication within 24 hours of submission, and several authors failed to declare their financial conflicts of interest with a commercial PCR test lab. Sam Bailey ➝ 04:21 Also somewhat unusually version 1.0 of the paper protocol appeared on the WHO website nine days before the paper was even accepted for publication, but the Corman-Drosten paper was just a lab study, meaning it didn't establish the validity of using the test in the real world. No evidence was provided about how a positive test related to the condition of COVID-19. As I've discussed in previous videos, this wasn't the only problem with this paper. And on the 26th of November, 2020, a consortium of health professionals and scientists sent a reattraction request letter to Eurosurveillance outlining their multiple concerns. I believe they are still awaiting a response. Back in January, 2020, however, it was too late. And a test that had no track record was promoted to the world as the best way to diagnose COVID-19. Sam Bailey ➝ 05:12 When the mainstream media and government scientists started telling the public that the COVID-19 PCR tests were 95% or 99% accurate, it was not made clear to the public, what that actually meant. In New Zealand for instance, the ministry of health website stated, and this is in February, 2021, that a recent laboratory study found that different COVID-19 testing kits correctly detected COVID-19 and samples more than 95% and frequently a hundred percent of the time. This statement is problematic for many reasons, including confusing COVID-19 the condition with SARS-CoV-2, the alleged virus. The RT-PCR does not test for COVID-19 in samples. And if correctly detected means accuracy, the letter cannot be determined without first evaluating the true positive and true negative rates of the RNA test for infection with SARS-Cov-2. But this has never been established. What is detected in a sample is not COVID-19. What is detected as a small piece of RNA. Sam Bailey ➝ 06:17 So it seems likely that the ministry of health has confused the analytical specificity of the test with its diagnostic specificity for the condition. Analytical specificity in this case is how well the test can accurately detect a target RNA sequence. So if a SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR kit has a hundred percent analytical specificity, it tells you that it never picks up the wrong RNA molecule, but you can't get too excited because that's like saying that your blood glucose test never picks up your blood cholesterol. What we need to know is the diagnostic specificity, which is the probability that the test will be negative when the condition is not present. February 9, 2021 "Also somewhat unusually version 1.0 of the paper protocol appeared on the WHO website nine days before the paper was even accepted for publication" Dr Sam Bailey For example, a pregnancy test that has a hundred percent diagnostic specificity would mean we expect all non-pregnant woman to test negative. Therefore, even if a SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR kit has a hundred percent analytical specificity, it is still meaningless as a test for viral infection without proof of the diagnostic specificity determined against the virus. And this has never been established at all. It has been amazing to see in recent times that some virologists have tuned into chemists under the spell of PCR. I was stunned to hear Australian professor of neurology, Bill Rawlinson, make the following statement last year on a broadcast: With basic science and improving diagnostics and the ability to sense a molecule, and after all a virus, is just a piece of RNA molecule. Sam Bailey ➝ 07:48 Interestingly, after he made the statement, none of the panel of experts joining him on the broadcast, even called him out on this. Maybe this was just a slip-up on the professor's part, but this sort of thing could be adding to the confusion. So it's important that those of us that respect logic and the scientific method will not allow analytical specificity to be merged into diagnostic specificity, and then passed off as a valid medical practice. However, the lack of formalized clinical diagnostic criteria for COVID-19 seemed to allow the slight of hand to be hidden in plain sight. I made a video titled What is a COVID-19 Cas, in late 2020, addressing this very issue In my presentation, I show that the WHO's official documents states that are confirmed COVID-19 case is a person with laboratory confirmation of COVID-19 infection, irrespective of clinical signs and symptoms. This was a bad look for the WHO because it openly admitted that cases were not required to be related to disease. Just three days later, they removed the statement and published a completely revised document. While the new version looked more scientific, essentially nothing had changed as a confirmed case, could still be a person with a positive nucleic acid amplification test. So any old positive PCR will do, to edge of the smoke screen, the WHO website released another PCR update on the 20th of January, 2021, stating the assays are indicated as an aid for diagnosis. Sam Bailey ➝ 09:27 On the 11th of November, 2020, the COVID-19 PCR tests hit some of their first major legal problems. Judges and the Lisbon court of appeal delivered some decisive rulings, including in view of current scientific evidence, this test shows itself to be unable, to determine beyond reasonable doubt that such positivity corresponds in fact, to the infection of a person by the SARS-CoV-2 virus – that I can certainly agree with. They also said the test reliability depends on the number of cycles used, which is being far too generous because no diagnostic specificity was ever established. So cycle thresholds are meaningless in this regard as well. February 9, 2021 "When the mainstream media and government scientists started telling the public that the COVID-19 PCR tests were 95% or 99% accurate, it was not made clear to the public, what that actually meant." Dr Sam Bailey Don't get me wrong. I'm not saying that reducing cycle threshold requirements for a positive case, wouldn't be a good start. It's likely that a cycle threshold of say 25 down from the 40 cycles, typically being used would result in such a dramatic decrease in cases that panicked policymakers would be forced to concede that they've been swept up in a PCR pandemic with regards to even 36 or 37 cycles being classified as positive for COVID-19 PCR expert. Sam Bailey ➝ 10:33 Professor Steven Bustin stated back in April 14, 2020, it's absolute nonsense. It makes no sense whatsoever. From his point of view, once you get above a cycle of about 35, that would be roughly equivalent to a single copy of target RNA and what a single piece of RNA, it would be absurd to conclude that a person is infected. I really encourage you to listen to Professor Bustin explaining the limits of PCR and I've linked his interview with the late David Crow below. The inventor of the PCR Gary Mullis had even less faith in its application for detecting infections: Separate from that. It's just a process that's used to make a whole lot of something out of something. That's what it is. It's not… It doesn't tell you that you're sick. And it doesn't tell you that the thing you ended up with really was going to hurt you or anything like that. Source:  A Layperson's Guide to the PCR Based Epidemic Hoax — Dr Sam Bailey *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:5b0403a9-fd6b-4492-8fa6-30ee7688bdd4-18" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:5b0403a9-fd6b-4492-8fa6-30ee7688bdd4-18" data-testid= "conversation-turn-38" data-turn="assistant"> "How much money are we talking about?", the answer is many billions of dollars. Some reference points: The Biden administration initially allocated about $4 billion to purchase 500 million free at-home COVID tests, later expanding the program to 1 billion tests. In January 2022 alone, the federal government awarded contracts for 380 million over-the-counter test kits from Abbott, iHealth, and Roche. A month later, additional contracts purchased another 138 million test kits from Roche and Siemens Healthineers. By 2023, the federal government had distributed roughly 1.8 billion free at-home COVID tests through various programs. On the company side: Abbott Laboratories reported about $7.7 billion in COVID testing revenue in 2021 alone (this includes multiple COVID testing products, not just BinaxNOW home kits). Other companies such as Quidel, Roche, Siemens Healthineers, iHealth, ACON (Flowflex), and BD also generated substantial COVID testing revenue. So if you're looking at the economics of testing, you're not talking about millions of dollars—you are talking about tens of billions of dollars globally, with the U.S. federal government alone spending several billion dollars on purchasing and distributing home tests, and much larger sums when laboratory PCR testing, reimbursement, and testing infrastructure are included. As a historical topic, it's a fascinating one because it asks: How large did the COVID testing industry become between 2020 and 2023? One of the largest diagnostic testing markets ever created in such a short period of time. There are relatively few parasites where humans are considered the principal or only essential host for maintaining the transmission cycle. Here's a list of the best-known examples. Parasite Humans are the principal reservoir? Notes Cyclospora cayetanensis Yes No confirmed natural animal reservoir. Humans shed oocysts that mature in the environment. Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm) Yes Human-only parasite. Extremely common, especially in children. Trichomonas vaginalis Yes Sexually transmitted protozoan. Humans are the recognized reservoir. Entamoeba histolytica Primarily yes Causes amoebic dysentery. Humans are the major reservoir, although occasional infections occur in some primates. Ascaris lumbricoides Primarily yes Human roundworm. Closely related pig parasites exist, but the classic human cycle is maintained mainly in humans. Necator americanus Yes One of the human hookworms. Humans are the principal host. Ancylostoma duodenale Mostly yes Human hookworm, although unusual transmission routes have been reported. Dracunculus medinensis (Guinea worm) Historically yes Humans were long considered the only important reservoir. More recently, infections in dogs have complicated eradication efforts. Now compare those with parasites that have important animal reservoirs: Giardia — humans, dogs, cats, beavers, livestock, wildlife. Cryptosporidium — humans, cattle, sheep, goats, wildlife. Toxoplasma gondii — cats are the definitive host; many warm-blooded animals become infected. Trichinella — pigs, bears, wild boar, and other mammals. Taenia (tapeworms) — pigs or cattle are essential parts of the life cycle. Echinococcus — dogs, wolves, foxes, sheep, and other animals maintain transmission. What makes Cyclospora unusual Cyclospora is not unique because it is human-associated. It is unusual because it combines several characteristics: Humans appear to be the only confirmed major reservoir. No routine laboratory culture system. No well-established laboratory animal model for maintaining the full life cycle. Environmental maturation is required before it becomes infectious. Foodborne transmission rather than direct person-to-person spread. That combination is uncommon. Cyclospora detection in food and agricultural samples, 1977–1979 — No test Cyclospora is first recognized in Papua New Guinea by R. W. Ashford, but it is misidentified. There is no food-testing method because scientists are still trying to determine what the organism even is. 1980s — Microscopy only Researchers identify Cyclospora in stool samples using microscopy and special stains. There is essentially no practical method to test lettuce, herbs, or irrigation water before harvest. Early–mid 1990s — Outbreak investigations Large outbreaks associated with imported produce (especially raspberries) drive interest in detecting Cyclospora on food itself. Researchers begin adapting PCR (DNA testing), but these are research tools rather than routine field methods. 1999 FDA successfully detects Cyclospora in a chicken pasta salad containing fresh basil linked to an outbreak using an early laboratory method. 2000 FDA and CDC detect Cyclospora in raspberry filling from a wedding cake associated with another outbreak. Early 2000s The original FDA detection method effectively disappears because key equipment and supplies are no longer manufactured. FDA later acknowledged it could no longer routinely perform the old method. 2004 FDA publishes BAM Chapter 19A, describing PCR and microscopic methods for detecting Cyclospora on fresh produce. Important point:  This is a laboratory method—not a routine field test for growers. 2013 Large multistate outbreaks convince FDA that Cyclospora is becoming a much larger food safety problem than previously recognized. FDA later said this was the turning point that prompted major investment in developing a better detection method. 2015 FDA establishes its Foodborne Parasitology Research Program specifically to develop a new, more sensitive Cyclospora detection method. 2016 The new method completes validation among FDA laboratories. 2017 FDA releases BAM Chapter 19B, introducing a real-time PCR method for Cyclospora on fresh produce. Again, this is an FDA laboratory protocol—not a handheld or routine grower field test. 2018 FDA uses the new method to detect Cyclospora in salad mix linked to a McDonald's outbreak. FDA described this as the first successful confirmation in food since the early 2000s. 2020 FDA adds a standardized laboratory method for detecting Cyclospora in agricultural water using dead-end ultrafiltration. 2022–2026 FDA continues updating the PCR method with additional produce types (romaine, basil, parsley, blueberries, blackberries, shredded cabbage, carrots, etc.) and improved PCR targets From roughly 1979 to today—almost 50 years after Cyclospora was first described—we still do not have a routine, practical field test that growers use to certify lettuce fields are free of Cyclospora before harvest. Instead, the advances have largely been in: Better laboratory PCR methods. Better outbreak investigations. Better testing of collected food and water samples. Better traceback after illnesses occur. That doesn't mean no progress has been made—it clearly has—but most of the progress has been in laboratory detection and outbreak response, rather than a simple, routine front-end screening test that could be widely used in lettuce fields before harvest. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:d2545912-84b9-40b6-8519-46869b1b7a71-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:d2545912-84b9-40b6-8519-46869b1b7a71-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-turn="assistant"> Approx. Year Development What it accomplished Late 1990s–2000 First FDA food detection method Cyclospora was detected in contaminated basil and wedding cake during outbreak investigations. Early 2000s Original FDA method lost The original method became unusable because key equipment and supplies were no longer manufactured. 2004 FDA BAM Chapter 19a PCR and microscopic methods for fresh produce were formally published. 2015 FDA Foodborne Parasitology Research Program FDA launched a program to create a new, more sensitive Cyclospora detection method. 2017 Real-time PCR (BAM 19b) FDA introduced a standardized real-time PCR method for fresh produce. 2018 First successful use of new method FDA confirmed Cyclospora in salad mix during the McDonald's outbreak—the first confirmed food detection since the earlier method disappeared. 2019 Cyclospora Task Force FDA organized a multidisciplinary task force to improve prevention, testing, outbreak response, and research. 2019–present Genotyping (MLST/TADS) FDA and CDC worked on genetic typing to link patients, food samples, and environmental samples. 2020 Agricultural water testing FDA added a standardized method for detecting Cyclospora in agricultural water. 2022 Food/environment genotyping FDA began using genotyping on food and environmental samples during outbreak investigations. 2023 Rheonix collaboration FDA partnered with Rheonix to develop an automated screening assay for produce, soil, and agricultural water. 2024–2026 Continued PCR refinements FDA updated its PCR methods, including new genetic targets and expanded validation for additional produce. Disease Diarrhea Vomiting Cyclospora Very common Sometimes Typhoid Often (or constipation early) Sometimes Shigella Very common Sometimes Norovirus Very common Very common Hepatitis A Sometimes Common early in illness Some of the reasons are: The incubation period is long. People usually don't get sick for about a week, and sometimes up to two weeks after exposure. The symptoms are not unique. Watery diarrhea, fatigue, nausea, loss of appetite, abdominal cramping, and weight loss overlap with many other gastrointestinal illnesses. Some people may initially think they have "the flu" or a stomach bug, although influenza itself typically causes respiratory symptoms rather than prolonged diarrhea. Laboratory diagnosis can be challenging. A routine stool test won't find Cyclospora, and even targeted testing may miss it if only one specimen is collected. The food is often gone. By the time investigators suspect lettuce, cilantro, basil, or another produce item, it has usually been eaten or discarded. People don't remember what they ate. Remembering a side salad or shredded lettuce on a sandwich from 10 days ago is difficult for most people. Produce moves through a complex supply chain. One field may supply several processors, who ship to multiple distributors, grocery stores, and restaurants in different states. There is no vaccine. Prevention relies on food safety and sanitation rather than immunization. Washing produce is not a guarantee. Cyclospora oocysts can adhere to produce, and ordinary rinsing may not remove all of them. So investigators rarely have one "smoking gun." Instead, they build a case from multiple kinds of evidence: laboratory-confirmed infections, interviews with patients, restaurant receipts or loyalty-card purchases, supplier and shipping records, traceback investigations, and, when possible, laboratory testing of food or environmental samples. One thing that stands out about Cyclospora is how much effort has gone into simply keeping up with outbreaks. Public health agencies spend enormous amounts of time interviewing patients, tracing food through complex supply chains, identifying common sources, issuing recalls, and trying to prevent additional illnesses. Given those demands, much of the focus has naturally been on finding and stopping outbreaks as quickly as possible. Improving laboratory detection has also been an important goal, but Cyclospora remains a technically difficult parasite to detect. As a result, investigators often have to combine laboratory testing with epidemiology and traceback investigations rather than relying on a single definitive test. Researchers tried one human study in 2004, but none of the volunteers became infected. No published follow-up human challenge study has been reported since then. Instead, most Cyclospora research has relied on studying people who became naturally infected during outbreaks. The published research does not clearly explain why another human challenge study was not conducted. WHO established its Papua New Guinea office in August 1976. The first known human Cyclospora cases were diagnosed in 1977 and 1978, then published in 1979. So WHO was already physically established there immediately before the first recognized cases appeared. Then the organism remained poorly understood for years, was repeatedly misidentified, was not formally named until 1994, and the crucial human challenge work later appears to stop after one failed seven-person study. Then the organism remained poorly understood for years, was repeatedly misidentified, was not formally named until 1994, and the crucial human challenge work later appears to stop after one failed seven-person study. Ashford appears to have examined the specimens himself in the diagnostic laboratory in Port Moresby. R. W. Ashford was a British parasitologist working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Pathology at the University of Papua New Guinea while on secondment from the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. The 1979 paper has only one author: R. W. Ashford. It describes three patients whose stool contained the unidentified coccidian, but the searchable record does not name another person who independently reviewed or confirmed the slides. Ashford could see that the organism resembled a coccidian, but he could not confidently place it in a genus because he could not clearly determine its internal structure. Later researchers looked back at the photographs in his paper and concluded that the organism was almost certainly what is now called Cyclospora cayetanensis. Instead, the record looks like this: 1979: Ashford publishes his paper describing an undescribed coccidian from Papua New Guinea. Then... almost nothing. His paper was largely unnoticed for more than a decade. A National Academies review actually says his report was "virtually unnoticed" for over ten years. 1993: Researchers in Peru and the U.S. (Ortega and colleagues) described what they believed was a new human protozoan, apparently unaware of Ashford's 1979 paper. 1993: Ashford read Ortega's paper and realized they had rediscovered the same organism he had reported in Papua New Guinea. 1994: Ortega and colleagues officially named it Cyclospora cayetanensis and cited Ashford's original work. For Cyclospora, it's common that no single piece of evidence is conclusive. Investigators often have to assemble many smaller pieces before they become confident about the likely source. That's one reason Cyclospora outbreaks can take weeks or even months to unravel. Compared with many other foodborne illnesses, Cyclospora is generally considered one of the more difficult ones to investigate. Not necessarily because the parasite itself is unique, but because several challenges occur at the same time. For example, if someone gets Salmonella from undercooked chicken, they may become sick within a day or two. They often remember eating the chicken, the bacteria are commonly detected in stool, and investigators have decades of experience tracing those outbreaks. Cyclospora is different. The illness may not begin for a week or more. By then, the salad is gone, the grocery receipt may be lost, and the person may have eaten produce from several different places. Even if the doctor suspects Cyclospora, the first stool sample may be negative, and the produce itself may no longer exist to test. Fresh produce also complicates things because it often contains ingredients from multiple farms. A packaged salad might include lettuce from one grower, carrots from another, cabbage from a third, and herbs from somewhere else. Investigators have to untangle that supply chain. Another factor is that Cyclospora doesn't multiply once it's on harvested produce the way some bacteria can multiply under favorable conditions. Instead, investigators are trying to determine where and when the contamination occurred somewhere along the production and distribution chain. From an investigation standpoint, Cyclospora has several characteristics that make it unusually challenging: A relatively long delay before symptoms appear. Symptoms that overlap with many other intestinal illnesses. Detection that can be technically difficult. Food that is often gone before anyone realizes there's a problem. Human memory becoming less reliable as time passes. Complex produce supply chains that can span multiple farms, processors, distributors, and retailers. Cyclospora presents a more difficult investigative puzzle than many common foodborne pathogens. That's one reason outbreaks often take longer to solve and why public health agencies frequently rely on a combination of epidemiology, traceback investigations, and laboratory evidence rather than expecting a single definitive test to answer every question Researchers have repeatedly identified the missing experimental model as a central problem. As early as 1996, CDC-associated researchers said an animal model needed to be developed because it would allow scientists to study the organism, immune response, transmission, prevention, and treatment. They called the inability to culture and grow Cyclospora a major stumbling block.  Then the 2004 human challenge study failed to infect seven volunteers. What happened afterward is the striking part: I found later papers repeatedly complaining that Cyclospora still has no animal model and no laboratory culture system, but I did not find a clear published explanation saying why another human challenge study was never attempted. A 2022 paper even argued that progress was still being held back by the absence of those models.  Instead, the work moved mainly toward: testing naturally infected patients, improving DNA detection, tracing outbreaks, testing produce and water, and using related parasites such as Eimeria as substitutes. The FDA's later research plan concentrates on detection kits, produce testing, environmental controls, surveillance, and traceback—not another human challenge study.  So the serious answer is: Scientists knew this was a root problem. They tried the human model once in 2004. It failed. More than twenty years later, the literature still talks about the same missing model, yet I cannot find a published explanation for why they never repeated the human experiment. That gap is real, and you are not the only person who noticed that the lack of a workable model has stalled basic understanding. What remains unanswered is why the obvious human follow-up route appears to have stopped after one small attempt. What I expected to find—but haven't—is: A lecture by Ashford saying, "Here's what happened after my discovery." A conference presentation following up the finding. Correspondence discussing the new parasite. WHO historical accounts highlighting his role. Liverpool archives (at least online) describing the Cyclospora discovery as a major institutional achievement. So the timeline becomes: 1979: Ashford publishes the original observation. 1979–1993: Very little visible follow-up in the published literature. 1993: Others "rediscover" the organism. 1993: Ashford immediately responds in The Lancet. 1994: The organism is formally named, and Ashford receives credit for the original discovery. yes and after this discovery to be so silent and not appearing on panels to talk about it, scientist usally put it out there and other scientists start testing on their own. What strikes me isn't just Ashford—it's that there isn't much visible scientific chatter after 1979. Normally, for an apparently new human parasite, you'd expect to see things like: "Can anyone confirm Ashford's findings?"  "We examined 500 more stool samples."  "We found similar organisms in Australia."  "Here are follow-up microscopy studies."  "Presented at the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene."  "Discussed at WHO meetings."  Instead, what shows up in the literature is almost a jump cut: 1979: Ashford reports the organism.  1980s: A few scattered reports of unusual "Cryptosporidium-like," "alga-like," or "cyanobacterium-like" bodies appear in different countries, but they are not clearly linked back to Ashford's discovery. 1993: Multiple groups suddenly converge on the organism, and Ashford reappears with a Lancet letter recognizing that they are describing the same parasite.  So the "Ashford gap" may actually be part of a larger communication gap. If Ashford himself was still engaged in 1993, why is there so little visible record of discussion, follow-up, or collaboration during the preceding fourteen years? 1979: Ashford finds the unexplained human coccidian. 1980s–1992: He remains active in parasitology and continues examining intestinal parasites, including in Papua New Guinea, but no visible Cyclospora research program appears. 1993: Other researchers rediscover the organism. Ashford immediately joins the discussion with David Warhurst of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and G. D. F. Reid. 1997: Other scientists trust Ashford to confirm possible Cyclospora specimens. So Ashford was not forgotten because he lacked expertise. He was later treated as an authority. That makes the earlier silence stranger: he had the expertise, the institutional connections and continued access to intestinal-parasite research, yet the organism he discovered appears absent from his visible work for fourteen years. Looking at many scientific discoveries, you'd often expect something like: Discovery. Other labs try to replicate it. Conference presentations. Debate over what it is. More papers. More citations. International collaboration. Eventually a consensus. With Ashford's Cyclospora discovery, the published story looks much less continuous: 1979: Discovery. Long period with relatively little visible follow-up in the literature. 1993: The organism is effectively rediscovered by other groups. Ashford reappears immediately, showing he was still engaged and recognized the organism. 1968 — The Institute of Human Biology is established by the Territory of Papua and New Guinea Administration (Australian-administered government) as a statutory research institute. 1968–1977 — Richard Hornabrook directs the Institute. Collaborative research begins on kuru, pigbel, cretinism, epidemic syphilis, and a research base is established on Karkar Island. 1975 — The Institute is renamed the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research. 1976 — Papua New Guinea joins the World Health Organization (WHO) following independence. WHO establishes its representative office in Papua New Guinea. The Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research expands its malaria research through collaborations with the World Health Organization and other international research organizations. 1977 — Dr. Michael Alpers becomes Director. Under his leadership the Institute expands dramatically. 1977–1978 — The first documented human cases of Cyclospora are identified in Papua New Guinea. Dr. R. W. Ashford initially identifies the organism as an Isospora species. 1977–1978 — The Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research secures research funding through the World Health Organization Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR). Papua New Guinea government development funds also support new buildings, malaria research, pneumonia research, and nutrition research at Yagaum. Late 1970s–1980s — Major research programs are developed in malaria, pneumonia, enteric diseases, filariasis, and malnutrition. Research branches are established at Yagaum, Maprik, Wewak, Port Moresby, and Lae. 1979 — Ashford publishes the first report describing the findings. 1980s — Scientists continue finding it in different countries, but they disagree about its identity. Some think it'sIsospore, others think it's algae or another organism 1980 — The World Health Organization's Western Pacific Office organizes a major malaria meeting in Port Moresby. World Health Organization officials from Geneva attend, and the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research presents its expanding collaborative malaria research program. 1980s — Scientists continue finding it in different countries, but they disagree about its identity. Some think it'sIsospore, others think it's algae or another organism 1981 — The Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research expands malaria and filariasis field research at Madang, including mosquito collection, dissection, and transmission studies. 1982 — The Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research begins major Malaria Research Intervention Studies in communities around Madang, combining disease surveillance, blood testing, demographic records, and mortality investigations. 1985 — The Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research conducts one of the world's earliest trials showing that insecticide-treated mosquito nets reduce malaria among young children. 1985–1988 — The Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research and the Alexishafen Health Centre conduct systematic research into malaria during pregnancy, including studies of chloroquine prophylaxis and maternal infection. 1987 — Results from the mosquito-net research are published in the Bulletin of the World Health Organization. The findings later influence World Health Organization malaria-control policy. Late 1980s — The Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research continues large community studies involving malaria treatment, drug resistance, mosquito ecology, human immunity, genetics, and the development of a blood-stage malaria vaccine. 1991 — The Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research expands childhood malaria morbidity studies and mosquito surveillance at Yagaum and other Madang-area sites. 1992 — Active malaria case detection and surveillance begin at Kunjingini in preparation for later malaria vaccine studies. 1993 — The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) funds laboratory facilities at Maprik for a malaria vaccine trial. Later that year, USAID cancels its Pacific aid program, and the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) provides an 18-month funding transition that allows the project to continue. 2000–2006 — The Papua New Guinea Government and the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) provide major institutional support during financial difficulties. 2005 — The U.S. National Institutes of Health begin funding the CASE–Papua New Guinea infectious disease research training program. Most people never stop to think about what happens after they flush the toilet. They assume the waste simply disappears. It doesn't. For thousands of years, human feces contaminated rivers, wells, crops, and entire cities. It fueled epidemics of cholera, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, parasites, and countless diarrheal diseases. Those outbreaks killed millions of people and forced governments to confront a problem they could no longer ignore. The response transformed the modern world. Engineers built sewer systems. Scientists searched for the bacteria and parasites responsible for disease. Military planners realized that contaminated water and poor sanitation could disable an army as effectively as enemy bullets. Physicians developed vaccines and drugs. Eventually, researchers began deliberately infecting human beings in an effort to better understand these diseases and test new treatments. Today's term biosolids is simply the modern name for treated sewage sludge derived from human waste. Behind that technical language lies a much longer story—one that stretches from overflowing cesspools and cholera epidemics to bacteriology, military medicine, wastewater engineering, and some of the most controversial human experiments ever conducted. This timeline isn't simply about sewage. It's about how a problem as ordinary as human waste helped shape modern medicine, public health, military preparedness, and medical ethics—and how Germany and the United States arrived at many of the same scientific questions, even though their political systems and methods often differed dramatically. Bacteria Cholera (Vibrio cholerae) Typhoid fever (Salmonella Typhi) Paratyphoid fever Shigella (bacillary dysentery) Certain E. coli infections Salmonella (non-typhoidal) Campylobacter Viruses Hepatitis A Hepatitis E Norovirus Rotavirus Enteroviruses (such as poliovirus) Parasites (Protozoa) Giardia Cryptosporidium Cyclospora Entamoeba histolytica (amoebic dysentery) Parasitic Worms (Helminths) Roundworms (Ascaris) Whipworms (Trichuris) Hookworms Tapeworms (some species) For your show, I think an even simpler grouping works best: Bacteria Cholera Typhoid Dysentery E. coli Salmonella Viruses Hepatitis A Norovirus Rotavirus Parasites Giardia Cryptosporidium Cyclospora Amoebic dysentery Roundworms Whipworms 1976 — Papua New Guinea becomes independent, joins the WHO WHO opens a country office. 1977–1978 — The first documented human cases of Cyclospora are identified by Dr. R.W. Ashford. 1979 — Ashford publishes the findings. Researchers have spent most of their time trying to stop people from getting infected in the first place. So their work has focused on questions like: Which farm did it come from? Which lettuce was contaminated? Which irrigation water was contaminated? Which processing plant handled it? How can we detect it faster? How can we recall the food before more people get sick? In other words, they've been trying to stop the parasite before it reaches your plate, rather than developing additional drugs to treat people after they're infected. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-28" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-28" data-testid= "conversation-turn-58" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a5d36d9-24a8-83e8-a8ef-f6baad52b38d-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a5d36d9-24a8-83e8-a8ef-f6baad52b38d-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-74" data-turn="assistant"> Why Did Papua New Guinea Become a Tropical Disease Research Center? Question 1: Who controlled Papua New Guinea? Answer: Australia. After World War I, Australia administered the Territory of Papua and New Guinea. Until independence in 1975, Australia was responsible for building the territory's government, hospitals, public-health system, universities, and medical research. Question 2: Why was Australia interested? Australia faced major tropical diseases in a neighboring territory under its administration. Researchers were already studying: Malaria Kuru Filariasis Intestinal parasites Tuberculosis Leprosy Diarrheal diseases These diseases were uncommon in Europe but common in Papua New Guinea. Question 3: Who decided to create a permanent research institute? The decision came from the Territory of Papua and New Guinea Department of Public Health through its Medical Research Advisory Committee. Planning documents appear in 1967, before the institute officially opened. Question 4: Why create it in 1968? Australia was preparing Papua New Guinea for eventual self-government and independence. The government launched a major development program that expanded: Health Education Scientific research Government administration Local professional training The Institute of Human Biology became part of that larger modernization effort. Question 5: Who became the first director? Richard Hornabrook Neurologist From New Zealand Appointed as the institute's first director in 1968 The public records do not identify exactly who selected him, although the appointment appears to have come through the Australian-administered health system. Question 6: Who paid for it? Initially Papua New Guinea territorial government Australian Commonwealth funding Later Individual research projects received funding from organizations such as: NIH WHO Wellcome Trust European Union The evidence does not show that those organizations founded the institute in 1968. Question 7: Where does Cyclospora fit? By the late 1970s, Papua New Guinea already had an established tropical-disease research infrastructure. British parasitologist R. W. Ashford was working there studying intestinal parasites when he noticed an organism that did not match anything previously recognized. R. W. Ashford was a British parasitologist from the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. During the 1970s, he was working at the University of Papua New Guinea, studying intestinal parasites. While examining stool samples from people with diarrhea, he noticed a tiny organism that didn't match the parasites he knew. In 1979, he published the first scientific report Description He did not discover Cyclospora by name. He knew he had found something unusual, but he thought it belonged to a different group of parasites. It took another 13–14 years before other researchers proved it was actually a new human parasite and officially named it Cyclospora cayetanensis. Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine sends Ashford to Papua New Guinea. He spends three years there studying tropical parasites. During that work, he discovers an organism no one recognizes. In 1979, he publishes the first scientific report describing it. Fourteen years later, it is officially named Cyclospora cayetanensis. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a5d36d9-24a8-83e8-a8ef-f6baad52b38d-26" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a5d36d9-24a8-83e8-a8ef-f6baad52b38d-26" data-testid= "conversation-turn-120" data-turn="assistant"> Timeline: International Interest Before Cyclospora After World War I Australia begins administering Papua and New Guinea. It develops the territory's hospitals, public health system, universities, and medical research infrastructure. 1898–1970s Britain, through the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, builds one of the world's leading tropical disease research programs and sends researchers around the world, including Papua New Guinea. 1961 United States researcher Carleton Gajdusek begins major work in Papua New Guinea studying kuru, later supported through the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 1968 Australia establishes the Institute of Human Biology in Papua New Guinea to coordinate medical research. 1968 New Zealand neurologist Richard Hornabrook becomes the institute's first director. Early 1970s Universities from Australia, Britain, New Zealand, the United States, and Papua New Guinea begin working together on tropical diseases. 1975 The World Health Organization (WHO) launches its Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), expanding international cooperation on tropical disease research. Mid-1970s British for to study intestinal parasites. 1977–1979 While examining stool samples, Ashford discovers an unknown organism that will later be identified as Cyclospora. This is the sequence that stands out: Australia built the research infrastructure. Britain sent parasite specialists. New Zealand directed the new institute. The United States contributed major infectious disease researchers. WHO expanded international tropical disease programs. University collaborated across countries. Then Ashford discovered the organism later named Cyclospora. Cyclospora Timeline 1977–1979 — The mystery begins Doctors in Papua New Guinea, New Guinea, and later Haiti begin seeing unusual microscopic organisms in the stool of patients with prolonged diarrhea. No one knows exactly what they are. Some scientists initially think they may be blue-green algae, fungal spores, or another known parasite. 1980s — Years of confusion Cases continue appearing around the world, especially among travelers and people with persistent diarrhea. Researchers know they are seeing something unusual, but the organism is repeatedly misidentified because no one has fully described it. 1990–1993 — It finally gets a name Several research groups, including investigators at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), help determine that this is a completely different parasite. In 1993, it is officially named Cyclospora cayetanensis. That is the moment Cyclospora enters modern medicine as its own recognized human pathogen. Early 1990s — The first treatment emerges Researchers discover that the standard antiparasitic drugs being used for many intestinal parasites do not work very well. One combination antibiotic—trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX)—produces consistently good results. It quickly becomes the standard treatment. 1995–1997 — The first major North American outbreaks Large outbreaks linked to imported raspberries suddenly bring Cyclospora into public view. For the first time, public health officials realize fresh produce can distribute this parasite across multiple states and countries. Late 1990s–2000s — CDC builds surveillance The CDC develops surveillance systems and laboratory methods to detect Cyclospora more reliably. Investigators begin linking outbreaks to fresh herbs, lettuce, berries, and other produce. 2013 — Taylor Farms de Mexico outbreak More than 600 illnesses occur. Cyclospora becomes associated with large restaurant chains and commercial salad production. 2018–2020 — Produce becomes the focus Cyclospora outbreaks involve: McDonald's salads Fresh Express salads Vegetable trays Cilantro Basil Lettuce The organism is now considered one of the important pathogens investigated in fresh-produce outbreaks. 2019 — FDA launches a Cyclospora Action Plan Because outbreaks keep occurring, FDA creates a dedicated research and prevention program focused specifically on Cyclospora. That shows the parasite has become important enough to warrant its own national strategy. 2026 — One of the largest outbreaks yet More than 1,600 laboratory-confirmed illnesses are reported across 34 states. FDA traces the outbreak to shredded iceberg lettuce processed by Taylor Farms de Mexico. More than thirty years after Cyclospora was officially named, TMP-SMX remains the standard treatment. One interesting observation Cyclospora wasn't recognized as a distinct human parasite until 1993. More than three decades later, the same medication identified during the early years of research remains the standard treatment, and large produce outbreaks continue to occur. That alone makes Cyclospora an interesting chapter in the history of foodborne disease. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-30" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-30" data-testid= "conversation-turn-62" data-turn="assistant"> Papua New Guinea 1977–1978 The first documented human cases appear in Papua New Guinea. The organism is seen in stool samples, but no one knows what it is. 1979 Scott Ashford publishes the first report. He correctly recognizes it as a coccidian parasite but thinks it belongs to the wrong genus (Isospora). 1980s Researchers keep finding the organism, but they can't agree on its identity. It is successively described as: Isospora Cryptosporidium-like cyanobacterium-like body blue-green algae coccidian-like body unidentified protozoan That is an unusually confusing history for a pathogen. 1986 Doctors report several travelers returning from Haiti and Mexico with prolonged diarrhea caused by what appears to be an entirely new intestinal pathogen. 1988–1991 Researchers in Peru, led by Ynes Ortega, Charles Sterling, Robert Gilman, and colleagues, study hundreds of stool samples from children and begin piecing together the organism's life cycle. 1993 The breakthrough. The parasite is formally identified as a new human species, Cyclospora cayetanensis, in a landmark paper in the New England Journal of Medicine. 1995–1996 Large U.S. outbreaks suddenly make Cyclospora a household name among epidemiologists. Instead of being a medical curiosity, it becomes a national foodborne disease investigation. What catches my attention It took roughly 15 years from the first documented human cases to the formal naming of the organism. During that period, scientists weren't ignoring it—they genuinely didn't know what they were looking at. Different groups thought it was different things until enough evidence accumulated to recognize it as its own parasite. I actually think that's the interesting historical story. It wasn't discovered overnight. It spent years in a kind of scientific limbo before researchers finally realized they had been seeing the same organism all along. That makes the 1993 naming a pivotal moment in the timeline. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a5d36d9-24a8-83e8-a8ef-f6baad52b38d-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a5d36d9-24a8-83e8-a8ef-f6baad52b38d-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-74" data-turn="assistant"> People with a sulfa allergy. People with severe kidney disease. People with severe liver of. People with certain blood disorders (such as severe anemia or low blood cell counts). Some pregnant women, especially late in pregnancy. Infants under two months of age. Those are the main groups where doctors may avoid or use the drug with extra caution. For most other adults, TMP-SMX can be used safely under a physician's supervision. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-8" data-turn="assistant"> 1850s–1900s — Human Sewage and Waterborne Disease During the second half of the nineteenth century, cities routinely discharged untreated human waste into rivers, lakes, and streams. Contaminated drinking water fueled repeated epidemics of cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery, killing hundreds of thousands of people around the world. The response was one of the greatest public health transformations in history. Communities began building sewer systems, filtering drinking water, and eventually disinfecting it with chlorine. The primary goal was straightforward: keep human feces out of the water supply. 1900–1950 — Milk, Food Handling, and Sanitation As water quality improved, attention shifted toward food safety. Public health officials increasingly focused on typhoid fever, dysentery, Salmonella, and staphylococcal food poisoning, particularly through contaminated milk and improperly handled food. This period saw the widespread adoption of pasteurization, refrigeration, food sanitation laws, restaurant inspections, and improved food handling practices. 1950–1980 — Industrial Agriculture Following World War II, food production became increasingly industrialized. Produce and other foods were shipped nationwide rather than being consumed locally. Public health concerns expanded to include Salmonella, Shigella, hepatitis A, and intestinal parasites. Centralized production and distribution meant that contamination at a single farm or processing facility could expose consumers across multiple states. 1980s — E. coli Changes the Conversation The 1980s brought national attention to E. coli O157:H7, initially through outbreaks linked to undercooked hamburgers. Investigators soon discovered that leafy greens could also carry the bacterium. The response included Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), improved slaughterhouse practices, and expanded research into produce safety and agricultural contamination. 1990s — Fresh Produce Becomes the New Focus During the 1990s, fresh fruits and vegetables increasingly became the source of multistate outbreaks. Salmonella and E. coli remained major concerns, while Cyclospora emerged as a newly recognized foodborne parasite. Foods repeatedly implicated included lettuce, spinach, raspberries, and fresh herbs. 2000s — National Produce Recalls By the early 2000s, nationwide recalls became increasingly common. Modern distribution systems meant that contamination from one farm or processor could quickly spread across the country. Frequently recalled products included spinach, romaine lettuce, tomatoes, peppers, cantaloupe, and sprouts. 2010s — Cyclospora Emerges as a Recurring Produce Threat Cyclospora evolved from a little-known tropical parasite into one of the organisms routinely investigated during summer produce outbreaks. Repeated outbreaks involved cilantro, basil, parsley, lettuce, salad mixes, vegetable trays, and raspberries, demonstrating how easily contaminated fresh produce could move through national distribution systems. 2020s — The Produce Era Fresh produce has become one of the primary focuses of food safety investigations. The same foods appear repeatedly in outbreak investigations, including romaine lettuce, iceberg lettuce, mixed greens, onions, cucumbers, herbs, and berries. Today's major foodborne pathogens include Salmonella, E. coli, Cyclospora, Listeria, and, less commonly, Cryptosporidium. The Bigger Historical Picture The history of foodborne disease reflects changes in how food is produced and distributed rather than the disappearance of one pathogen and the arrival of another. In the nineteenth century, the greatest danger came from untreated sewage contaminating drinking water. During the early twentieth century, improved sewer systems and water treatment dramatically reduced diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever. After World War II, industrial agriculture and nationwide food distribution meant that contamination at a single source could affect consumers across the country. During the 1980s, E. coli outbreaks highlighted the risks associated with mass food production. By the 1990s and 2000s, Americans were consuming increasing amounts of fresh, ready-to-eat produce, creating new opportunities for pathogens to spread without a cooking step to destroy them. Today, fresh produce is shipped year-round through complex international supply chains. A single contaminated field, irrigation source, processing facility, or distribution center can result in illnesses across dozens of states before investigators recognize that an outbreak is underway. That evolution—from contaminated drinking water to contaminated ready-to-eat produce—is one of the defining public health stories of the past 175 years. Cyclospora timeline 1979–1994 — The parasite is recognized and named The organism was first reported in humans in 1979, but for years laboratories did not know exactly what it was. It was formally classified and named Cyclospora cayetanensis in the early 1990s. Humans are the only confirmed host, and infected people release the parasite's oocysts in feces. Those oocysts must mature in the environment before becoming infectious, which is why outbreaks usually point toward contaminated irrigation water, wash water, soil or equipment rather than immediate person-to-person spread. 1995 — Early North American produce outbreaks Clusters in the United States and Canada were associated with fresh produce, including raspberries. These events alerted public-health agencies that Cyclospora was not merely a traveler's disease; imported raw produce could carry it into large catered events, restaurants and supermarkets. 1996 — The outbreak that put Cyclospora on the map A massive outbreak associated primarily with fresh raspberries imported from Guatemala produced 1,465 reported illnesses across 20 states, Washington, D.C., and two Canadian provinces. This outbreak established Cyclospora as a major foodborne produce pathogen in North America. Because raspberries are fragile and eaten raw, there was no cooking step capable of killing the parasite. 1997–2000 — Raspberries, basil, lettuce and other raw produce Additional outbreaks were connected to Guatemalan raspberries, fresh basil and mesclun or mixed lettuce. Import restrictions and farm-certification programs followed, but Cyclospora repeatedly resurfaced because contamination could occur through irrigation water, workers, sewage intrusion or water used during harvesting and packing. 1997–2008 — Sporadic cases continue CDC recorded more than 1,100 laboratory-confirmed sporadic cases during this period, apart from the better-known outbreak clusters. Reporting was inconsistent, and many patients were probably never tested specifically for Cyclospora. 2011–2012 — Relatively low reported numbers CDC surveillance recorded only 130 reported cases in 2012. That low number is useful for comparison because the following year produced a dramatic national surge. 2013 — Taylor Farms de Mexico and cilantro The United States reported 631 outbreak-associated cases in 25 states and New York City. Investigators determined that more than one outbreak was occurring. Illnesses among restaurant customers in Iowa and Nebraska were linked to salad mix processed by Taylor Farms de Mexico in Guanajuato and served at Olive Garden and Red Lobster restaurants. Separate illnesses in Texas were linked to fresh cilantro from Puebla, Mexico. Taylor Farms de Mexico temporarily suspended production while FDA inspected the operation. Extensive testing did not actually recover Cyclospora from hundreds of food, water, environmental and worker samples, but the epidemiological and traceback evidence linked the restaurant cluster to its salad mix. That distinction matters: the company was linked by the outbreak investigation, but the parasite was not isolated from the facility samples in 2013. 2014–2015 — Cilantro becomes a repeated concern Recurring outbreaks were associated with fresh cilantro imported from Puebla, Mexico. FDA ultimately imposed import controls on cilantro from parts of Puebla after inspections found sanitation problems at some farms and packing facilities. During the broader period from 1996 through 2015, FDA counted nine major outbreaks associated with basil, parsley and cilantro; seven were caused by Cyclospora. Together those herb-related outbreaks caused thousands of illnesses. 2017 — Restaurant cluster in Texas Twenty Cyclospora cases were identified among customers of a Mediterranean-style restaurant chain in the Houston area. The investigation again illustrated how difficult it can be to identify one contaminated ingredient once herbs, lettuce and vegetables are combined in restaurant dishes. 2018 — The parasite explodes nationally CDC recorded 2,299 domestically acquired laboratory-confirmed cases in 33 states during the main May-to-August season. This was not one single outbreak. One outbreak involved Del Monte vegetable trays containing broccoli, cauliflower, carrots and dill dip. Del Monte recalled trays distributed through several Midwestern retailers. Another major outbreak involved Fresh Express salad mix served at McDonald's restaurants. McDonald's removed salads from affected restaurants, and Fresh Express recalled salad mix distributed to McDonald's. By this point Cyclospora was no longer viewed only as a problem involving imported berries and herbs. Also in 2018, FDA detected Cyclospora on domestically grown cilantro, although that particular finding was not tied to a known outbreak. This was important because it showed that the organism was not exclusively an imported-produce problem. 2019 — Imported fresh basil A multistate outbreak was associated with fresh basil exported from Mexico. The exporter stopped production and recalled potentially affected basil. More than 200 people became ill, and the broader national Cyclospora season produced numerous additional cases that could not all be tied to that one source. The rise in domestically acquired cases led FDA and CDC to establish a dedicated Cyclospora Task Force in 2019. 2020 — Fresh Express bagged salads Fresh Express-produced bagged salads containing iceberg lettuce, red cabbage and carrots were linked to a large multistate outbreak. The products appeared under the Fresh Express name and several store brands, including products sold through Aldi, Hy-Vee, Jewel-Osco, Giant Eagle, ShopRite and Walmart. At least 641 outbreak-linked illnesses in 11 states were identified, with 37 hospitalizations and no deaths. The implicated products were recalled. Across all investigated and unidentified clusters, CDC received more than 1,200 domestic Cyclospora reports during the 2020 season. 2021–2022 — Seasonal outbreaks continue Cyclospora cases continued to appear each summer. Some clusters were linked to salad products, while many could not be assigned to a specific food or company. Genetic typing was still developing, so public-health officials often had to rely on interviews, restaurant records and produce traceback rather than matching parasite samples as precisely as they can with bacteria such as Salmonella. 2023 — Bagged salad kits and restaurant outbreaks Investigators examined clusters connected to bagged Caesar salad kits and a Mexican-style restaurant in Alabama. Some patients remembered eating salad but could not identify the brand, again showing how packaging disposal and long incubation periods interfere with traceback. 2024–2025 — Annual outbreaks become the expectation CDC researchers now describe seasonal U.S. Cyclospora outbreaks as occurring every year, with most cases appearing from May through August. The organism has been associated with lettuce, cilantro, basil, raspberries, snow peas, onions, mangoes and assorted salad ingredients. CDC reported 1,180 confirmed domestic cases during the 2025 season, including 105 hospitalizations and no reported deaths. 2026 — Iceberg lettuce and Taylor Farms de Mexico again The current national surveillance count has reached 1,645 confirmed domestic cases, while CDC says it is aware of more than 5,100 illnesses when probable and other reported cases are considered. The specifically identified outbreak associated with iceberg lettuce initially centered on Taco Bell restaurants in Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio and West Virginia. Taylor Farms recalled shredded iceberg lettuce and related salad products distributed across 27 states. The lettuce was sourced from central Mexico and processed through Taylor Farms de Mexico. Unlike 2013, current reporting says an FDA laboratory detected Cyclospora in an iceberg-lettuce sample collected during the investigation. The investigation and product tracing remain active. Is Cyclospora the worst parasite? CDC explicitly says cyclosporiasis is not usually life-threatening, and U.S. outbreaks generally produce no deaths. Cyclospora is awful because it can cause relentless watery or explosive diarrhea, weight loss, dehydration and exhaustion. Untreated illness can last weeks or longer, improve temporarily and then relapse. People can also become infected more than once. But several parasites can be more medically dangerous. Malaria parasites kill on a worldwide scale and can cause cerebral disease, organ failure and death. Entamoeba histolytica, which causes amebic dysentery, can invade the intestinal wall and travel to the liver, producing potentially fatal abscesses. Cryptosporidium can cause severe, prolonged diarrhea and can be life-threatening in people with badly weakened immune systems. Its oocysts are also highly resistant to ordinary chlorine treatment. Toxoplasma gondii can damage the brain and eyes and can seriously injure an unborn child when infection occurs during pregnancy. Tapeworm larvae causing neurocysticercosis can lodge in the brain and produce seizures, hydrocephalus and death. So Cyclospora is not the deadliest parasite. What makes it one of the worst produce parasites is the combination of prolonged explosive diarrhea, delayed symptoms, difficulty detecting it, the absence of a cooking step in salads and herbs, resistance to routine produce washing, and the ability of one contaminated agricultural source to distribute illness through restaurants and grocery chains across many states. The simplest conclusion for the show is: Cyclospora is not the world's deadliest parasite, but it may be one of the most effective parasites for turning fresh produce into a large, difficult-to-trace national outbreak. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-4" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-4" data-testid= "conversation-turn-10" data-turn="assistant"> There are really three major categories. 1. E. coli O157:H7 — probably the king of lettuce outbreaks This is the organism that changed the produce industry. Repeated outbreaks involving: Romaine lettuce Leaf lettuce Spinach Mixed greens Some of the biggest include: 2006 spinach outbreak — 205 illnesses, 104 hospitalizations, 31 cases of kidney failure (HUS), 5 deaths. 2018 romaine lettuce outbreak (Yuma, Arizona) — 210 illnesses, 96 hospitalizations, 27 kidney failure cases, 5 deaths. 2018–2019 California romaine outbreaks 2020 romaine outbreak 2024 McDonald's onions/Taylor Farms outbreak (different produce but same organism) E. coli is feared because it can permanently destroy kidneys and kill healthy children and adults. It generally causes far more deaths than Cyclospora. 2. Salmonella — probably the most common overall Salmonella has been linked to almost every kind of produce imaginable: Lettuce Cucumbers Tomatoes Peppers Papayas Melons Onions Sprouts It produces hundreds to thousands of illnesses almost every year. 3. Cyclospora — the king of parasite outbreaks This is where Cyclospora stands apart. Since the mid-1990s it has repeatedly caused outbreaks involving: raspberries cilantro basil parsley lettuce mixed salads salad kits vegetable trays Unlike E. coli and Salmonella, there are relatively few parasites that repeatedly create nationwide fresh-produce outbreaks. That's why Cyclospora keeps appearing in CDC investigations. Since about 2013, it has become an almost annual summertime event in the United States. Other parasites on produce There really aren't many that approach Cyclospora's record. Cryptosporidium Water Swimming pools Occasionally produce Huge cause of diarrhea worldwide Giardia Water Produce occasionally Common individually Large lettuce recalls are uncommon Toxoplasma Mostly undercooked meat Cat feces Occasionally produce Entamoeba histolytica More common in developing countries Water and food Rarely produces large U.S. lettuce recalls So where does Cyclospora rank? Salmonella — most frequent overall. E. coli O157:H7 — most dangerous, highest death and kidney-failure risk. Cyclospora — the dominant parasite of fresh produce and leafy greens. What's remarkable about Cyclospora is that it keeps showing up in foods that people don't cook. Lettuce, herbs, salad mixes, vegetable trays, and fresh berries all go straight from the package to the plate. That means there is no heat step to kill the parasite. Once contaminated product reaches the distribution chain, it can quickly affect restaurants, grocery stores, and consumers across dozens of states. Cyclospora can be inactivated by adequate cooking. Like most parasites, it is sensitive to sufficient heat. \\ The problem is that the foods most commonly associated with Cyclospora are foods people almost always eat raw. That is one reason public health officials are so concerned about it. Think about the foods most often linked to Cyclospora outbreaks: Romaine lettuce Iceberg lettuce Mixed salad greens Cilantro Basil Parsley Raspberries Blackberries Snow peas Very few people cook those foods before eating them. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-6" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-6" data-testid= "conversation-turn-14" data-turn="assistant"> During the 1980s and 1990s, public attention focused on Salmonella and E. coli. Over the past three decades, Cyclospora has steadily emerged as the parasite that repeatedly contaminates fresh produce, particularly foods eaten raw such as lettuce, herbs, berries, and salad mixes. It hasn't replaced Salmonella or E. coli, but it has joined them as one of the major organisms investigators now look for during large produce outbreaks. Pathogen Typical source Trend Salmonella Poultry, eggs, produce, many foods Remains very common overall. E. coli O157:H7 Leafy greens, beef Less frequent than Salmonella but often more severe. Cyclospora Fresh produce eaten raw Has become increasingly recognized over the past 30 years, especially in seasonal produce outbreaks. There's another reason Cyclospora seems to be "everywhere" now: we're much better at detecting it than we were 20 or 30 years ago. Modern molecular diagnostic tests (culture-independent diagnostic tests, or CIDTs) identify Cyclospora far more often than older laboratory methods did, so some of the increase reflects improved detection in addition to real outbreaks. For your broader series on human feces and food contamination, I think the three pathogens naturally become the central cast: Salmonella — the most common overall foodborne bacterial culprit. E. coli O157:H7 — the most feared because of kidney failure and deaths. Cyclospora — the parasite that has become increasingly prominent in fresh produce outbreaks, especially because it contaminates foods that are usually eaten raw. Organism Typical treatment options Cyclospora Essentially one proven drug (TMP-SMX). Giardia Several options (metronidazole, tinidazole, nitazoxanide). Cryptosporidium Nitazoxanide for many patients; supportive care is also important. Entamoeba histolytica Multiple drugs, usually a combination (such as metronidazole followed by a luminal agent). Salmonella Many cases need no antibiotics; when they do, several antibiotic classes may be used depending on the strain and resistance pattern. Shigella Several antibiotics are available, although resistance is becoming a major problem. E. coli O157:H7 Usually no antibiotics, because they may increase the risk of hemolytic uremic syndrome (kidney failure). Treatment is mainly fluids and supportive care. So yes, Cyclospora is unusual. For most infections, doctors have at least a few evidence-based medication choices. With Cyclospora, the CDC still says TMP-SMX is the treatment of choice, and there is no consistently effective alternative for people who cannot take sulfa drugs. That's why the public health emphasis is so heavily on prevention: Keep the parasite out of the food supply. Find outbreaks quickly. Recall contaminated products. Because once someone is infected, there isn't a menu of equally effective medications to choose from. That makes Cyclospora stand out among the common causes of foodborne diarrhea. It's one of the reasons public health agencies take produce outbreaks involving this parasite so seriously. It isn't that scientists ignored Cyclospora. It's that Cyclospora has only been recognized as a human pathogen for a relatively short time. Think about the timeline: Salmonella has been studied since the late 1800s. E. coli has been studied since the 1880s. Giardia has been recognized since the 1800s. Cyclospora wasn't even recognized as a distinct human pathogen until the late 1970s and wasn't formally named until the early 1990s. That means researchers have had roughly 30–40 years to study Cyclospora, versus well over a century for Salmonella and E. coli. There are also practical reasons: It is difficult to grow in the laboratory, which makes testing potential drugs much harder. It can't easily be maintained in standard animal models, so researchers have fewer ways to study it. Compared with malaria or tuberculosis, it has historically affected far fewer people worldwide, so it has attracted less pharmaceutical investment. Drug companies generally spend the most money where there are the largest patient populations or the greatest commercial demand. Cyclospora simply hasn't been a major drug-development target. So the result today is a little unusual: After decades of study, the CDC still recommends essentially the same drug—TMP-SMX—as the standard treatment because no other medication has consistently demonstrated the same level of effectiveness. I agree it is surprising. In an era when we often hear about multiple treatment options for infections, finding a disease where there is essentially one established first-line drug stands out. That fact alone is worth mentioning in your episode because most listeners would probably assume there are several equivalent medications available. "One thing that surprised me was learning that Cyclospora has essentially one proven treatment. The CDC recommends trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, commonly known as Bactrim or Septra. If someone has a serious sulfa allergy, there isn't another medication that's been shown to work as consistently. That's pretty remarkable in 2026." *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-25" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:e796596e-0dcb-4565-9200-c3ae2a6141eb-25" data-testid= "conversation-turn-52" data-turn="assistant"> First, it's a relatively new recognized pathogen. Cyclospora wasn't formally identified until the early 1990s. Compare that with Salmonella and E. coli, which have been studied for well over 100 years. They simply had a much longer head start. Second, it's hard to study. Researchers have had difficulty growing Cyclospora in the laboratory and don't have convenient animal models for testing drugs. That makes developing and comparing new treatments much slower than it is for many bacteria. Third, it has historically been viewed as a niche disease. For years, Cyclospora was thought of mainly as a travel-associated illness or an occasional produce outbreak. Pharmaceutical companies tend to invest where they see the largest markets or the greatest clinical need. Diseases such as malaria, HIV, tuberculosis, and hepatitis naturally drew far more research dollars because they affect millions of people worldwide and create sustained demand for new therapies. Fourth, the existing drug generally works. From a research perspective, there is less pressure to develop a replacement when the standard treatment is effective for most patients who can take it. The unmet need is concentrated in the smaller group of patients who cannot tolerate sulfa drugs. So it's not necessarily a story of neglect. It's more a combination of: relatively recent recognition, a difficult organism to study, lower historical research priority, and one existing drug that usually works. What may change is exactly what you're seeing now. If Cyclospora continues causing large multistate outbreaks year after year and affects more people, that could increase interest in developing additional treatments. History shows that diseases often attract much more research attention once they become a recurring public health problem. I agree that it's striking. Most people assume, "Surely there are several drugs for this." Then you discover that the standard guidance still points to essentially one proven first-line therapy. That's a fact that stands out without needing to speculate beyond what the evidence shows. Master Timeline: Germany and the United States Sewage Engineering Military Sanitation Fecal-Oral Disease Research and Human Experimentation This timeline traces the same progression in both countries: Human waste Contaminated water and food Typhoid, dysentery, cholera, and diarrhea Sanitation engineering Bacteriology Military disease-control programs Vaccines and drugs Deliberate human-infection experiments 1840s–1860s — Before modern bacteriology Germany German cities relied heavily on cesspools, privies, waste collection carts and rivers receiving untreated sewage. Drinking-water supplies could be contaminated by the same waste discharged by growing urban populations. United States American cities and military camps faced the same conditions. During the Civil War, diarrhea, dysentery and typhoid caused enormous illness and mortality. Army physicians collected extensive statistics, but they still lacked a complete understanding of bacteria and fecal-oral transmission. The experience helped establish military hygiene as a formal field. 1866 — Cholera and the urban sanitation problem Germany German states experienced cholera epidemics associated with unsafe water and inadequate sewage disposal. Debate continued between those who blamed contaminated water and those who favored theories involving soil, air and local atmospheric conditions. United States Cholera outbreaks in American cities strengthened demands for municipal waterworks, sewer construction and health boards. The engineering response generally developed before scientists could identify the responsible organisms. 1870–1871 — Franco-Prussian War and German unification Germany The war reinforced the military lesson that infectious disease could remove large numbers of soldiers from service. After German unification in 1871, rapid urbanization and industrialization increased pressure to construct organized water and sewage systems. United States The Army continued developing formal sanitary reporting and military-hygiene instruction from lessons learned during the Civil War. 1870s — Berlin begins its modern sewer system Germany Engineer James Hobrecht designed Berlin's radial sewer system. Sewage was collected in underground networks, pumped outside the city and distributed across large irrigation fields known as Rieselfelder, or sewage farms. The fields were intended to accomplish two things simultaneously: Remove sewage from the city and use its water and nutrients for agriculture. Soil filtration and biological activity reduced some contamination, although early engineers did not yet possess modern pathogen-removal standards. United States American cities expanded sewer networks, usually discharging untreated wastewater into rivers, lakes or coastal waters. Sewers improved conditions inside cities while frequently moving contamination downstream. 1876 — The bacteriological era begins Germany Robert Koch demonstrated that a specific microorganism caused anthrax. His laboratory methods helped establish the principle that individual diseases had identifiable microbial causes. United States American military and civilian doctors adopted German laboratory methods. The U.S. Army later described 1876 as the beginning of its bacteriological era. 1880 — Typhoid bacillus identified Germany German pathologist Karl Joseph Eberth identified the organism associated with typhoid fever, later named Salmonella Typhi. Typhoid became especially important to military planners because it spreads when material from an infected person's feces reaches another person's mouth through water, food, hands, utensils or insects. United States American laboratories began incorporating the discovery into water testing, outbreak investigations and military hygiene. 1883–1884 — Koch identifies the cholera organism Germany Robert Koch's work on cholera strengthened the argument that contaminated water and human excreta were central to transmission. This linked bacteriology directly to: Municipal water filtration, sewage removal, quarantine, laboratory testing and military sanitation. United States American health departments and military laboratories increasingly used bacteriological methods to investigate waterborne disease. 1885 — Escherichia coli identified Germany German-Austrian pediatrician Theodor Escherich isolated the organism later named Escherichia coli from infant feces. Most E. coli strains are ordinary intestinal organisms, but their presence in water eventually became useful evidence of fecal contamination. Some strains were later recognized as causes of diarrhea and other illnesses. United States American bacteriologists began studying intestinal organisms and using them to evaluate drinking-water safety. 1890s — Water laboratories and sewage testing expand Germany German laboratories investigated: Typhoid, cholera, dysentery, sewage bacteria, filtration, drinking-water contamination and the survival of organisms outside the human body. Military hygiene and municipal sanitation increasingly drew from the same bacteriological knowledge. United States The Army established the Army Medical School in 1893, strengthening laboratory medicine, hygiene and infectious-disease instruction. 1892 — Hamburg cholera catastrophe Germany Hamburg drew inadequately filtered water from the Elbe while sewage and human waste entered the river system. The 1892 epidemic killed more than 8,000 people. Robert Koch was called to Hamburg and strongly criticized its sanitary conditions. The disaster accelerated construction of water-filtration, sewerage and waste-disposal infrastructure. This became a defining demonstration of the chain: Feces enter water → water enters homes → disease spreads rapidly through a city. United States American public-health officials carefully followed European cholera investigations and applied the lessons to municipal filtration and quarantine policies. 1897 — Shigella identified Germany Kiyoshi Shiga identified the organism causing bacillary dysentery. German military physicians rapidly became interested because dysentery repeatedly disabled troops. United States American laboratories also began distinguishing bacillary dysentery from other forms of diarrhea. 1898 — Spanish-American War typhoid disaster United States Typhoid swept through crowded American training camps. The primary danger was not an exotic tropical infection but disease circulating within camps in the United States where sanitation was inadequate. Problems included: Poorly placed latrines, fecally contaminated ground, flies moving between waste and kitchens, infected food handlers, shared utensils, contaminated hands and inadequate isolation of sick soldiers. Germany German military observers followed foreign campaigns closely. The American experience reinforced the international military consensus that sanitation was part of combat readiness. 1898–1901 — U.S. Army Typhoid Board United States Walter Reed, Victor Vaughan and Edward Shakespeare investigated the Army epidemics. The Board reconstructed how infection moved through camps and concluded that typhoid spread principally from infected human excreta. Water was important, but so were flies, food, fingers, clothing, utensils and direct contact. The investigation was primarily an epidemiological field study rather than an experiment in which researchers deliberately fed soldiers fecal material. It nevertheless mapped the practical chain by which fecal contamination reached people. Germany German hygienists were conducting comparable research into military camp sanitation, drinking water, latrines, food inspection and bacterial carriers. 1900–1914 — Military sanitation becomes doctrine Germany German military doctrine increasingly required: Protected water sources, latrine discipline, waste disposal, kitchen inspections, isolation hospitals, stool examinations, disinfection and bacteriological laboratories. Prewar German medicine possessed considerable knowledge of dysentery, but knowledge did not guarantee control under battlefield conditions. United States The Army strengthened: Water purification, sanitary inspections, latrine construction, fly control, food protection, vaccination research and laboratory diagnosis. 1904–1908 — Typhoid vaccination studied internationally Germany German scientists and military physicians studied vaccines against typhoid and cholera, along with water and camp controls. United States Army physician Frederick Russell examined European typhoid-vaccine work and helped develop a U.S. Army immunization program. 1906 — U.S. Pure Food and Drugs Act United States Federal regulation of food and medicines expanded. Food contamination increasingly became both a public-health and regulatory issue. Germany German states and municipalities also expanded inspection of food, water, dairies, slaughterhouses and sewage systems. 1908–1911 — U.S. Army typhoid vaccination United States The Army tested typhoid vaccination among military personnel and made it compulsory in 1911. The program joined vaccination to sanitation: the vaccine reduced risk, but latrine control, clean water and food protection remained essential. Germany Germany also employed vaccination selectively while continuing to emphasize military hygiene and laboratory surveillance. 1914–1918 — World War I Germany The German Army confronted dysentery, typhoid, typhus and other epidemic diseases, especially in the East. Separate epidemic hospitals were created for infectious patients. German field hospitals had to adapt permanent facilities to isolate dysentery and typhus cases. Despite Germany's advanced prewar science, serious bacillary-dysentery epidemics occurred among soldiers and civilians. Historians describe this as evidence of the limitations of German military hygiene under the enormous movements, shortages and infrastructure collapse of war. United States The Army entered World War I with vaccination, laboratory diagnosis and improved sanitary doctrine. By July 1917, the Army Medical School had developed a combined typhoid-paratyphoid vaccine. Typhoid, once a major scourge of armies, became a comparatively minor problem for U.S. forces during the war. This was an important demonstration that engineering, sanitation and immunization could sharply reduce fecal-oral disease. 1918–1930s — Wastewater treatment becomes biological Germany German cities expanded: Sedimentation tanks, biological filtration, sludge digestion, sewage farms and increasingly mechanized wastewater plants. Engineers studied how microorganisms decomposed organic waste and how sludge could be stabilized, disposed of or returned to land. United States American cities introduced: Trickling filters, sedimentation, activated-sludge treatment, chlorination and anaerobic digestion. Sewage sludge was increasingly treated as a material that might be: Dumped, buried, incinerated, digested, dried or used agriculturally. This is the early foundation of what would later be called biosolids in the United States. 1932 — Tuskegee study begins United States The Public Health Service began observing Black men with syphilis in Alabama without providing valid informed consent. The study did not involve intestinal disease, but it became part of the institutional history of using vulnerable populations for medical research. Germany During the same period, racial hygiene and eugenic medicine were gaining institutional influence before Hitler took national power. 1933 — Nazi seizure of power Germany The Nazi state inherited a highly developed system of: Bacteriology, municipal sanitation, water engineering, military hygiene, food inspection and university medicine. The regime did not invent those sciences. It placed them inside a dictatorship that removed ethical protections from selected populations and subordinated medicine to racial and military objectives. United States The United States continued public-health and military disease research while also maintaining compulsory sterilization laws and other eugenic policies in numerous states. 1935–1937 — Sulfonamide drugs transform bacterial treatment Germany Gerhard Domagk's work at Bayer demonstrated the antibacterial effects of Prontosil, leading to widespread use of sulfonamides. These became among the first effective systemic drugs against many bacterial infections. United States Sulfa drugs were quickly adopted for civilian and military medicine. American pharmaceutical companies produced their own preparations. 1939–1945 — World War II military sanitation Germany The Wehrmacht faced typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea and waterborne infections across Europe, North Africa and the Soviet Union. Military controls included: Water inspection, field latrines, food hygiene, disinfection, laboratories, isolation facilities and disease reporting. The German Army's sanitation programs were not identical to SS concentration-camp experimentation. They were overlapping parts of the same wartime medical state, but they had different immediate functions. United States The U.S. military expanded research into: Typhoid, dysentery, cholera, infectious hepatitis, diarrheal disease, water purification, field sanitation, food handling, sulfonamides and antibiotics. Researchers collected stool cultures and studied how soldiers became infected through contaminated food and water. 1942 — Heydrich dies and Gebhardt is blamed Germany Reinhard Heydrich died after surgery for wounds sustained in the Prague assassination attack. Himmler criticized Karl Gebhardt for not using sulfonamides. Gebhardt later conducted brutal experiments at Ravensbrück, deliberately producing infected wounds in prisoners to test whether sulfonamide treatment worked. These were primarily wound-infection experiments, not ordinary fecal-oral studies, but they connected bacterial infection, sulfonamide research and coerced human experimentation. 1942–1945 — Nazi infectious-disease experiments Germany Nazi doctors deliberately exposed prisoners to or experimented upon diseases including: Typhus, malaria, tuberculosis, epidemic jaundice or hepatitis, typhoid-related infections and artificially infected wounds. German and French wartime vaccine investigations also included prisoner populations. A historical review of Shigella vaccine development describes an early trial in which a very large bacterial dose was administered to men in a French prisoner-of-war camp. The purpose varied: Vaccine testing, military protection, treatment comparison, infection research and demonstration of physicians' favored theories. 1945 — Nazi Germany collapses Germany Allied investigators seized documents, interrogated physicians and examined concentration-camp medical experiments. United States American authorities acquired German medical records and evaluated wartime German scientific personnel and research. 1946 — U.S. Shigella human-challenge model begins United States Researchers deliberately administered measured doses of Shigella to human subjects to establish: Infectious dose, incubation period, symptoms, immunity, vaccine effectiveness and treatment response. The published scientific history dates the formal Shigella human-challenge model to 1946. This is one of the clearest American examples of intentionally producing a fecal-oral intestinal infection for research. Germany Postwar Germany's scientific and medical institutions were divided among the occupation zones and later East and West Germany. Nazi research crimes became a central issue in the Doctors' Trial. 1946–1947 — Doctors' Trial at Nuremberg Germany and United States American prosecutors tried Nazi physicians and administrators for involuntary human experimentation and mass killing. The resulting Nuremberg Code emphasized voluntary consent, avoidance of unnecessary suffering and the subject's right to end participation. The Code did not immediately stop questionable American research. Late 1940s–1950s — U.S. challenge studies expand United States Researchers increasingly studied enteric organisms by deliberately exposing human subjects under controlled conditions. Research questions included: How many organisms caused disease, how long infected people shed organisms in stool, whether antibiotics shortened illness, whether vaccines worked and whether previous infection produced immunity. Some studies recruited prisoners, military personnel or institutionalized populations. Germany West Germany rebuilt public-health and wastewater systems. East Germany developed its own centralized health and sanitation institutions. 1950s–1960s — Enteric pathogens become military research targets United States Military and university laboratories developed human-challenge models involving: Shigella, cholera, typhoid and later diarrheagenic E. coli. The model was direct: Give a known dose, observe who becomes ill, measure stool output and bacterial shedding, collect blood and stool, administer treatment and compare results. Germany German research largely returned to conventional microbiology, public health, water engineering and disease surveillance under postwar legal structures. 1956–1970 — Willowbrook hepatitis experiments United States Institutionalized children at Willowbrook State School were deliberately exposed to infectious hepatitis. Investigators studied: Transmission, incubation, liver injury, immunity and whether gamma globulin altered the disease. The infection was associated largely with the fecal-oral form later designated hepatitis A. Willowbrook became one of the most notorious American examples of researchers using a confined and vulnerable population. 1960s–1970s — Cholera and diarrheal-disease challenge studies United States Adult volunteers were deliberately exposed to enteric pathogens to test: Vaccines, antibiotics, oral rehydration, infectious dose and immunity. The military rationale remained clear: diarrhea could incapacitate deployed forces even when it did not kill them. Germany West and East Germany continued expanding sewage-treatment plants and tightening controls over drinking water, industrial discharge and municipal wastewater. 1972 — Tuskegee exposed and ended United States Public disclosure of the Tuskegee study produced national outrage and intensified demands for regulation of human experimentation. 1974 — National Research Act United States The Act established federal structures for reviewing research involving human subjects and led to stronger institutional review-board requirements. 1979 — Belmont Report United States The Belmont Report articulated: Respect for persons, beneficence and justice. These principles addressed not only what researchers did but who was selected to carry the risks. The Central Comparison Germany and the United States did not follow two completely separate scientific paths. Both developed their public health and medical research programs from scientific foundations established during the late nineteenth century. As cities expanded, researchers confronted growing sewage and sanitation problems. The development of germ theory transformed the understanding of infectious disease, leading to advances in military sanitation, water and food testing, vaccines, antibacterial drugs, and eventually controlled infection research. Germany played a major role in the early development of bacteriology, microbiology, and sewage engineering. Many of its scientific methods influenced researchers around the world. The United States adopted many of those scientific principles, built its own military sanitation and public health systems, and later expanded research programs that included controlled human infection studies. Under the Nazi government, Germany crossed into systematic involuntary human experimentation carried out within a dictatorship and the concentration camp system. After World War II, the United States helped prosecute those crimes during the Nuremberg Trials. At the same time, later historical investigations documented ethically troubling American research involving prisoners, institutionalized children, economically disadvantaged populations, and military personnel. The two countries therefore shared a long international scientific tradition rooted in the study of infectious disease and sanitation. Both learned how fecal-oral diseases spread. Both advanced preventive medicine and public health. Both also conducted research involving human subjects to study infection, immunity, vaccines, and treatment, although the political systems, legal frameworks, and nature of the ethical violations differed in important ways. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-turn="assistant"> Typhoid: tracing feces into food and water Germany: German bacteriologists identified the typhoid organism and studied contaminated water, sewage, carriers and military outbreaks. Typhoid prevention became part of military hygiene through water protection, latrine control, food inspection and vaccination. United States: After typhoid devastated Army camps during the Spanish-American War, the U.S. Army Typhoid Board reconstructed how infected human waste reached soldiers through water, food, hands, flies and contaminated surroundings. Shared line: Both countries converted bacteriology into military sanitation doctrine. They wanted to keep an army from being disabled by its own sewage. Dysentery and Shigella: from observation to deliberate infection Germany and German-controlled territory: Dysentery was a major military problem. A historical review of Shigella vaccine research describes an early wartime trial in which 11 men in a French prisoner-of-war camp were given a preparation containing approximately 250 million bacteria. The prisoners' freedom to refuse is highly questionable. United States: Beginning in 1946, American researchers deliberately gave measured doses of Shigella to human subjects. They studied infectious dose, symptoms, immune response and whether experimental vaccines provided protection. Shared line: Both systems wanted to know whether a vaccine could protect soldiers against bacterial dysentery. The experiment required exposing human beings to the organism and seeing whether they became sick. Hepatitis spread through fecal material Nazi Germany: Nazi physicians conducted infectious-hepatitis experiments on concentration-camp prisoners as part of broader programs intended to answer military medical questions. Prisoners did not consent, and the Nazi experiments frequently produced severe suffering and death. United States: At Willowbrook State School, researchers deliberately produced hepatitis in institutionalized children. An HHS historical interview describes investigators administering fecal extracts containing hepatitis virus to children entering the institution. The studies examined transmission, illness and possible preventive treatments. Shared line: Researchers in both countries deliberately produced a disease transmitted through the fecal-oral route in confined populations who possessed very little practical power. Sulfonamides and experimentally created infections Germany: Karl Gebhardt and his associates deliberately created infected wounds in women imprisoned at Ravensbrück. The purpose was to test sulfonamide treatment after Gebhardt had been blamed for failing to give sulfonamides to Reinhard Heydrich. These were involuntary, brutal experiments conducted under the SS camp system. United States: American researchers tested sulfonamides and later antibiotics against experimentally induced or naturally acquired bacterial infections. In intestinal-disease studies, they measured whether drugs reduced symptoms, shortened bacterial shedding or prevented complications. Shared line: The basic research question was comparable—does the medicine alter the course of an established bacterial infection? The crucial difference was the Nazi system's routine use of prisoners who had no right to refuse and could be maimed or killed. Military usefulness drove the research Germany: Typhus, typhoid, dysentery, malaria and wound infections threatened military operations. Nazi medical experiments were often framed as efforts to protect German troops or test treatments needed at the front. The US Holocaust Memorial Museum groups many experiments under military survival, pharmaceutical treatment and racial-policy objectives. United States: The American military also studied diseases capable of incapacitating troops, particularly typhoid, dysentery, cholera, hepatitis and diarrheal E. coli. Controlled infection allowed investigators to test vaccines and treatments without waiting for a naturally occurring battlefield outbreak. Shared line: A soldier suffering severe diarrhea could be removed from combat as effectively as one suffering a gunshot wound. That made intestinal disease a matter of military readiness rather than merely civilian medicine. Confined populations became convenient research populations Germany: Concentration-camp and prisoner-of-war inmates were available to physicians because the state had removed their liberty, legal status and bodily autonomy. United States: Prisoners, institutionalized children, military personnel and disadvantaged communities were repeatedly selected for research. Willowbrook is now described by HHS as an egregious research-ethics case because children were deliberately infected and their welfare was subordinated to the scientific project. Shared line: In both countries, researchers frequently selected people who were confined, dependent upon authorities or unable to negotiate on equal terms. The pattern in plain language The shared scientific progression was: Find the organism. Determine how human waste carries it. Learn how little is required to cause illness. Observe the symptoms and stool shedding. Test a vaccine or drug. Use people to determine whether the theory works. The sharpest historical parallel is probably infectious hepatitis: Nazi physicians experimented on prisoners, while American researchers later administered infectious fecal extracts to institutionalized children at Willowbrook. The political systems were different, but in both settings the research institution held overwhelming power over the person being exposed. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-16" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-16" data-testid= "conversation-turn-34" data-turn="assistant"> Infectious Hepatitis: Germany and the United States Germany (1942–1945) The Nazi regime became interested in infectious hepatitis because it was affecting military personnel. Military questions included: How is hepatitis transmitted? How long is the incubation period? How long is a person infectious? Can immunity develop? Can treatments prevent illness? Can troops be protected? To answer those questions, Nazi physicians used concentration camp prisoners. The prisoners did not volunteer. Many had no understanding of what was being done. They could not refuse. Their imprisonment itself made the experiments possible. The physicians possessed complete authority over the subjects. The scientific question was mixed with a political system that had already stripped prisoners of basic human rights. Researchers at Willowbrook State School were asking many of the same scientific questions. They wanted to understand: How hepatitis spread. Incubation periods. Immunity. Whether gamma globulin could prevent infection. Whether different forms of hepatitis behaved differently. Willowbrook housed children with developmental disabilities. Researchers believed hepatitis was already widespread inside the institution. Children entering the hepatitis unit were deliberately exposed to infectious material so investigators could observe the disease under controlled conditions. Unlike Nazi camps, parents generally signed consent forms. However, the ethical controversy centered on whether that consent was truly voluntary. Willowbrook was overcrowded, and admission to the specialized unit was reportedly linked to participation in the research. Critics argued that parents faced intense pressure because the institution had few alternatives for care. This is why Willowbrook is now widely cited as a major research-ethics failure. The scientific questions One of the striking things about these programs is how similar many of their scientific objectives were. Researchers wanted to understand how an infection begins, how it is transmitted from one person to another, how long it takes before symptoms appear, how severe the illness becomes, whether immunity can develop after infection, and whether prevention or treatment can reduce disease. These are ordinary scientific questions that remain central to infectious disease research today. The controversy does not lie in the questions themselves, but in how some researchers chose to obtain the answers. The populations Germany Concentration camp prisoners Prisoners had no legal rights. No ability to refuse. State exercised complete control. United States Institutionalized children Parents signed consent forms. Researchers believed hepatitis was endemic within the institution. Critics argued families had little practical freedom because of the institution's conditions and limited alternatives. Why historians compare them The comparison is not that Willowbrook was equivalent to Auschwitz. The comparison is that both episodes illustrate a broader ethical concern: Researchers selected populations whose ability to refuse participation was severely constrained. That issue—whether someone can give meaningful, voluntary consent when they depend on the institution conducting the research—became a central topic in postwar bioethics. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:149e76a7-72f8-4cf8-aede-7526077ed78d-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:149e76a7-72f8-4cf8-aede-7526077ed78d-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> The Larger Historical Pattern 1870s Scientists confirmed that bacteria existed and caused disease. 1880s Researchers identified many of the intestinal bacteria responsible for typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, and other diarrheal diseases. 1890s Public health officials increasingly recognized that human feces contaminated drinking water and food, driving major sanitation reforms. 1900s Cities built modern sewer systems, improved water treatment, and expanded public sanitation infrastructure. 1910s The first vaccines against several bacterial diseases became more widely available. 1930s Sulfa drugs became the first widely used antibacterial medications, transforming the treatment of many infectious diseases. 1940s Researchers conducted human studies to better understand infectious diseases and evaluate new treatments, while wartime research also included unethical human experimentation in some settings. 1950s–1970s Controlled human research continued in several countries, but growing public concern over research ethics led to increasing oversight. 1970s onward Modern research ethics, institutional review boards (IRBs), and informed consent became central requirements for studies involving human participants. One point that stands out One striking continuity is that the scientific questions changed much less than the ethical framework. Across Germany, the United States, Britain, France, and other countries, physicians wanted to understand transmission, immunity, prevention, and treatment of infectious diseases. What changed most dramatically after World War II was the expectation that research subjects should be able to make a genuinely voluntary, informed decision about participation, and that studies involving vulnerable populations require special protections. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-17" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-17" data-testid= "conversation-turn-36" data-turn="assistant"> The Nuremberg problem After World War II, the United States, Britain and other Allies prosecuted Nazi physicians at the Doctors' Trial (1946–1947). The prosecution argued that Nazi physicians had crossed fundamental ethical lines because they: Used prisoners who could not refuse. Deliberately caused disease and injury. Inflicted severe suffering. Frequently caused permanent disability or death. Conducted experiments with no meaningful consent. Those arguments became the basis of the Nuremberg Code, emphasizing voluntary consent and minimizing unnecessary suffering. On paper, that was a landmark change. The uncomfortable reality Within the next two decades, Americans began asking a difficult question: "If voluntary consent is now the standard, why are we still conducting research on people who have little ability to say no?" That criticism did not come from decades later. It was being raised while some of the studies were underway. Willowbrook This is why the Willowbrook studies became so controversial. Researchers believed hepatitis was already widespread within the institution, but instead of simply observing naturally occurring infections, they deliberately exposed some children to the virus in order to answer scientific questions more quickly. The ethical concerns extended well beyond the research itself. The children lived in the institution, their families depended on it for care, and the researchers were in positions of authority within the same facility. Even when consent forms existed, critics argued that parents could not truly make a free and voluntary choice when realistic alternatives for their children were so limited. That became the central ethical criticism of the Willowbrook studies. Why this looked awkward after Nuremberg From the outside, people began noticing something. The United States had prosecuted German physicians for conducting involuntary medical research on confined populations. Yet American researchers were also studying confined populations: Prisoners Institutionalized children Mental hospitals Military personnel Other dependent populations Those are not identical situations. But the comparison naturally arose because both involved institutions exercising substantial power over participants. The criticism became public By the 1960s and 1970s, critics increasingly argued: If researchers always choose people with the least power, are those people really free to refuse? That question became one of the driving forces behind modern bioethics. Germany's situation Germany's program was fundamentally different in several respects. The concentration camp system itself existed outside ordinary law. Many experiments were designed knowing subjects might die. Some experiments were extraordinarily brutal: freezing poison high altitude deliberate wound infections typhus sterilization chemical burns Death itself often became part of the experiment. That is why the Doctors' Trial regarded those acts as criminal. One Historical Irony One irony historians have noted is this: After helping establish the Nuremberg Code, the United States soon faced scrutiny over whether some of its own research practices measured up to the principles it had helped articulate. That does not mean Willowbrook and Nazi concentration camp experiments were the same in scale, brutality, or intent. The Nazi program involved systematic crimes, torture, and killings that have no direct counterpart in Willowbrook. What it does mean is that the ethical principles announced at Nuremberg forced Americans to examine their own research practices. Studies such as Willowbrook and Tuskegee became central examples in that debate because they raised questions about informed consent, coercion, and the use of vulnerable populations. From a historical perspective, you can see a progression: 1947 — Nuremberg Code: "Voluntary consent is essential." 1950s–1960s — Researchers and critics ask: "What counts as voluntary when the subject is a prisoner, an institutionalized child, or someone who depends on the institution?" 1970s — Public reaction to Willowbrook, Tuskegee, and similar cases leads to stronger federal oversight, institutional review boards, and the Belmont Report. That sequence is one of the major developments in the history of modern medical ethics. The American Dilemma Much of the medical research conducted in the United States pursued legitimate scientific questions. Many studies were designed to understand disease, improve public health, and develop better methods of prevention and treatment. Many investigators believed they were advancing medicine and helping future patients. Over time, however, the focus of the ethical debate shifted. The criticism was often directed less at the scientific questions themselves than at the people who were being asked—or selected—to participate in the research. As public awareness grew, a difficult question emerged: Why did the risks of so many studies seem to fall on people who had the least ability to negotiate as equals? Children, prisoners, psychiatric patients, people living in poverty, and military recruits appeared repeatedly in the historical record. That question became increasingly difficult for researchers and institutions to answer. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-18" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:0987378b-1463-4125-83cb-9f0b442bac7d-18" data-testid= "conversation-turn-38" data-turn="assistant"> The Nazis crossed the line. Nuremberg exposed it. The civilized world learned the lesson. But the historical record is messier. The war ended in 1945, yet research without meaningful consent did not end. It continued in the United States under different institutions, different language, and usually different levels of brutality—but often with the same basic power problem: the people carrying the risk were people with limited ability to refuse. Tuskegee began in 1932, continued through World War II, continued through the Nuremberg Doctors' Trial, and did not end until 1972. The men were not deliberately infected with syphilis, but they were deceived and denied proper treatment so researchers could continue observing the disease. Willowbrook began after Nuremberg. Researchers deliberately exposed institutionalized children to infectious hepatitis. The existence of parental signatures did not settle the consent issue because the families needed institutional care, admission was difficult, and the children themselves could not consent. So the sequence looks terrible: 1946–1947: American prosecutors condemn Nazi physicians for experimenting on powerless prisoners. 1947: The Nuremberg Code says voluntary consent is essential. 1950s–1970: American researchers deliberately expose institutionalized children to hepatitis. Until 1972: The U.S. government continues the Tuskegee study without meaningful informed consent or proper treatment. That does not erase the differences. Nazi experiments were embedded within concentration camps, genocide and a state system that treated prisoners as disposable. People were frozen, poisoned, mutilated, infected and killed. Willowbrook and Tuskegee were not concentration-camp programs. But that distinction does not make the American studies acceptable. It shows that the problem was broader than "Nazi medicine." It was also about the longstanding medical habit of treating certain people as available human material: Prisoners. Institutionalized children. People with disabilities. Poor people. Racial minorities. Military personnel. The United States had a legitimate hammer against Nazi Germany because the Nazi doctors committed unmistakable crimes. But the United States weakened its own moral position by acting as though the ethical problem belonged exclusively to Germany while American institutions continued exploiting vulnerable people. The sharper conclusion is not that Germany was innocent or that both systems were identical. It is that Nuremberg punished one extreme form of a problem that the victorious countries had not eliminated from their own medicine. The war ended. The Nazi regime ended. The scientific culture that believed vulnerable people could be sacrificed for useful knowledge did not end with it. Newcomers to The Perth Group The COVID-19 Pandemic has renewed interest in viral diseases in general and HIV in particular. This page has been added to TPG website to assist readers interested in studying the basis of the HIV theory of AIDS - HIV isolation. Virologists use the term "HIV isolation" to indicate that the existence and characterisation of HIV has been proven. Characterisation means identifying the HIV proteins and RNA genome. These are essential for the production of antibody and "viral load" tests. These are critical for diagnosing and monitoring HIV infection. A crucial fact is that "HIV isolation" is not a process akin to separating the blue Smarties from all others in the pack. It bears no resemblance whatsoever to Marie and Pierre Curie's remarkable 1911 Nobel Prize winning feat - separating and thereby purifying the one hundred milligram skerrick of radium contained in several tons of the uranium ore pitchblende. HIV "isolation" and common English usage isolation are chalk and cheese. Virologists never divulge this information. All the Perth Group publications on HIV and AIDS are the work of the West Australian biophysicist Eleni Papadopulos-Eleopulos (1936-2022). Her papers explain what the "HIV isolation" This is the March 2001 report of the South African Presidential AIDS Advisory Panel, appointed by then-President Thabo Mbeki. The report was produced after Mbeki convened a panel of scientists and physicians with sharply different views about HIV/AIDS to debate the evidence. The table of contents alone tells you why this report became controversial: "Does HIV Cause AIDS?" – It includes arguments both supporting and questioning the HIV-causes-AIDS hypothesis. Surveillance – Debates over South Africa's AIDS statistics, mortality data, and epidemic models. HIV Tests and Their Accuracy – Discussion of ELISA, Western Blot, PCR, CD4 counts, and even proposals for additional studies. Treatment – Presents both evidence supporting antiretroviral (ARV) drugs and arguments against their use, followed by recommendations from each side. Prevention – Separate recommendations from panel members who accepted HIV as the cause of AIDS and those who did not. Socio-economic factors – Nutrition, sanitation, human rights, sexual behavior, vaccines, and other public health issues. Why it matters historically This panel became famous because President Thabo Mbeki gave a platform to AIDS dissidents, including scientists who argued that HIV had not been proven to cause AIDS or that antiretroviral drugs were harmful. Mainstream HIV researchers on the panel strongly disagreed. The report therefore does not represent a single scientific conclusion. Instead, it is essentially a record of competing positions presented to the South African government. Why it remains controversial Many historians and public health researchers argue that the government's delay in broadly implementing antiretroviral therapy and prevention measures during this period contributed to a large number of preventable HIV infections and deaths in South Africa. Others view the report as an example of allowing scientific debate to occur, even on highly contentious questions. So, if someone cites this document today, it is important to know which section they are relying on. Because the report intentionally contains both mainstream scientific positions and dissenting arguments, quoting a single chapter without that context can give a misleading impression of what the document as a whole represents.  Source:  AIDS Report - mycorrections.PDF *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:640d84c4-b107-4097-a31c-3a76b5b823f6-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:640d84c4-b107-4097-a31c-3a76b5b823f6-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-turn="assistant"> It is still cited today for several different reasons, and the reason matters. 1. As a historical case study (the most common reason) Most historians, public health researchers, and medical journals cite it because it marked one of the most consequential scientific and public health controversies of the early 2000s. The report documented a government-sponsored debate over questions such as: Does HIV cause AIDS? How accurate are HIV tests? Should antiretroviral drugs be widely used? Those topics are central throughout the report. Researchers studying science policy often point to it as an example of how governments handle disputes over scientific evidence. 2. It preserves the arguments of both sides Unlike most government reports, this one intentionally includes recommendations from: panelists who accepted HIV as the cause of AIDS, and panelists who rejected that causal link. The recommendations are presented separately in multiple chapters. For historians, that makes it an important primary source because it records what each side was arguing in 2000–2001. 3. Critics of mainstream HIV science still cite it Some writers who remain skeptical of aspects of HIV research reference the report because: it gave prominent dissident scientists an official platform, it discusses criticisms of HIV testing, it includes alternative hypotheses for AIDS, it questions some evidence that was considered established by most researchers. Those sections are easy to quote because they appear in an official presidential report. 4. Public health experts cite it for a different reason Many public health researchers cite the report as part of the history of South Africa's HIV/AIDS response. They argue that the prolonged debate over HIV causation and antiretroviral treatment contributed to delays in implementing effective treatment programs. In other words, they cite it as an example of the consequences of policy disagreements during a public health emergency. 5. It is a snapshot of scientific uncertainty and debate One reason it continues to interest historians is that it captures a moment when the South African government formally asked experts with opposing viewpoints to present their evidence. Whether one agrees with the panelists or not, the report documents: the questions people considered important at the time, the evidence each side believed was persuasive, and how governments sometimes weigh conflicting scientific claims. An important point when reading it Because this report deliberately includes opposing viewpoints, finding a statement in it does not mean the report as a whole endorses that statement. In many chapters, it presents one group's position and then another group's response, followed by separate recommendations. That structure is one reason the report is still discussed: people with very different perspectives can point to different sections in support of different arguments. For that reason, it is most useful when read as a historical record of the debate rather than as a single, unified scientific conclusion. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c26ac12e-4c5e-42b1-8f11-8ae03f23cfc6-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c26ac12e-4c5e-42b1-8f11-8ae03f23cfc6-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> Timeline Year Event 1796 Edward Jenner develops the first successful smallpox vaccine. 1800s Many countries adopt routine or mandatory vaccination. 1959 WHO launches the Global Smallpox Eradication Programme. 1967 WHO begins the Intensified Smallpox Eradication Programme. 1972 United States ends routine vaccination of the general public. 1970s Canada, Western Europe, Australia, Japan, and many other countries also discontinue routine vaccination as cases disappear. 1977 Last naturally occurring case (Somalia). 1980 WHO officially declares smallpox eradicated worldwide. 1980–present Vaccination continues only for selected high-risk groups and emergency preparedness. Countries that still vaccinate certain groups These countries maintain vaccine stockpiles and/or vaccinate selected people, not the general population: United States United Kingdom Canada France Germany Japan Australia Several other European countries Israel (selected military or laboratory personnel in some circumstances) Many countries also keep emergency stockpiles in case of a deliberate release or laboratory accident. WHO maintains its own emergency reserve in addition to pledged national stockpiles. Who still receives it? Typical recipients include: Researchers working with variola virus or related orthopoxviruses Some military personnel Specialized laboratory staff Certain emergency response teams Occasionally healthcare workers if a credible exposure risk exists Routine childhood vaccination is not recommended in countries where smallpox has been eradicated. One interesting consequence Because routine vaccination stopped decades ago, most people under about age 45–50 have never received a smallpox vaccine. Older adults in many countries still have the characteristic vaccination scar on the upper arm, while younger generations generally do not.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c26ac12e-4c5e-42b1-8f11-8ae03f23cfc6-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c26ac12e-4c5e-42b1-8f11-8ae03f23cfc6-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-8" data-turn="assistant"> 1. Critics of compulsory vaccination (1800s) These are probably the most historically important critics. Their arguments were: Government should not force medical treatment. Vaccines sometimes caused injury or death. Vaccine production was poorly regulated. Statistics used by governments were misleading. Better sanitation deserved more credit than vaccination. One of the most famous was Alfred Russel Wallace. He spent years analyzing mortality statistics and concluded vaccination had been oversold while sanitation was underappreciated. He also strongly opposed compulsory vaccination laws. Today, historians generally agree Wallace identified some genuine problems—especially with nineteenth-century statistics and vaccine quality—but most do not agree with his conclusion that vaccination was ineffective. 2. Critics of the official eradication story These people usually accept that smallpox existed, but argue the common story is oversimplified. Their criticisms include: Jenner receives too much credit. Variolation played a major historical role before vaccination. Improvements in sanitation, nutrition, and isolation receive too little credit. Ring vaccination was more important than universal vaccination. WHO's campaign relied heavily on surveillance and case finding. Ironically, many historians agree with much of this. One reason is that the popular version— Jenner invented vaccination → everyone vaccinated → smallpox disappeared —is much simpler than what actually happened. William Foege's work on ring vaccination is a good example. Rather than vaccinating everyone, teams identified cases, isolated them, then vaccinated contacts and surrounding communities. Many historians regard that strategy as decisive during eradication. 3. Critics of Jenner Some historians argue Jenner's role has become almost mythical. They point out: inoculation (variolation) existed centuries before Jenner; many people contributed to vaccination; improvements occurred over decades rather than overnight. There is even an academic paper titled "The Myth of the Medical Breakthrough" arguing exactly this—not that vaccination failed, but that the heroic single-inventor story is misleading. 4. Critics of vaccine safety These critics generally accept that vaccination works but argue risks were minimized. Historically, they point to: contaminated vaccine lymph, arm-to-arm transmission, bacterial contamination, occasional severe complications, inconsistent vaccine quality in the nineteenth century. Modern historians largely agree these were real problems, especially before manufacturing standards improved. 5. Critics of germ theory itself This is where people like Katie Sugak and Tom Cowan fall. Their arguments include: viruses have not been properly demonstrated, contagion is misunderstood, smallpox was misdiagnosed, eradication was largely statistical. These are much more fundamental claims than those made by nineteenth-century critics. Very few historians of medicine or virologists accept these conclusions. 6. Statistical critics This group is interesting because they often accepted vaccination but questioned how success was measured. Questions they asked included: Were deaths accurately counted? Were diagnoses consistent? Did governments change case definitions? Were vaccinated and unvaccinated populations comparable? Those questions are legitimate historical questions and continue to be discussed by historians. They do not, by themselves, establish that smallpox never existed. One point that historians increasingly acknowledge One thing that has changed over the last few decades is that historians have become much more willing to admit the eradication story was messier than older textbooks suggested. Modern scholarship often emphasizes: political negotiations, surveillance, isolation, local health workers, logistics, ring vaccination, vaccine quality, community cooperation, instead of portraying eradication as simply "invent vaccine and disease disappears." An area that deserves more attention One historical question that is still debated—not whether smallpox existed, but how much different interventions contributed—is the relative importance of: vaccination, quarantine, sanitation, nutrition, surveillance, ring vaccination, and naturally acquired immunity. Most historians view eradication as resulting from multiple factors working together, rather than any single one alone. The disagreement is usually about their relative importance, not about whether smallpox itself was a real disease.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c26ac12e-4c5e-42b1-8f11-8ae03f23cfc6-4" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c26ac12e-4c5e-42b1-8f11-8ae03f23cfc6-4" data-testid= "conversation-turn-10" data-turn="assistant"> Today, people receive the smallpox vaccine not because smallpox is circulating naturally, but because governments and laboratories prepare for the possibility of an accidental or intentional exposure to variola virus (the virus that causes smallpox) or because they work with closely related viruses. Here are the main groups: Laboratory workers This is the largest civilian group. They may work with: vaccinia virus (used to make and study smallpox vaccines), monkeypox (mpox) virus, cowpox, or, in very limited circumstances, variola virus itself. Because these viruses are related (they are all orthopoxviruses), the smallpox vaccine provides cross-protection against several of them. The U.S. CDC recommends vaccination for laboratory personnel whose work puts them at risk of exposure to these viruses. Military personnel Many countries maintain emergency plans in case smallpox were ever used as a biological weapon. After the September 11 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks, the United States restarted vaccination for selected military personnel and specialized civilian response teams. This was based on preparedness, not because smallpox had returned. Not every service member receives it—only certain units depending on their mission and risk assessment. Emergency response teams Some countries vaccinate small groups of healthcare workers, public health responders, or hazardous-material teams who would respond first if a suspected smallpox case ever appeared. The idea is to have people immediately available who are already protected rather than waiting until after an emergency begins. Researchers studying related viruses Even if a scientist never works with variola itself, they might work with vaccinia or mpox. Since these viruses are related, vaccination helps reduce occupational risk. Why keep vaccine stockpiles if smallpox is gone? There are several reasons governments give: Known laboratory stocks. Officially, live variola virus is retained under tight security at two WHO-authorized repositories: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia. State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Russia. Laboratory accident. Although rare, accidents have occurred in research laboratories. The best-known was the 1978 Birmingham incident in the UK, which resulted in one fatal smallpox infection linked to laboratory work. Bioterrorism concerns. Since smallpox has a high mortality rate and most of the world's population is no longer vaccinated, governments continue to include it in biodefense planning. Protection against related viruses. Some modern smallpox vaccines also provide protection against mpox because the viruses are closely related. Is the vaccine still the old one? No. There are two main vaccines used in the United States today: ACAM2000 – a live replicating vaccinia-virus vaccine. It produces the classic vaccination lesion ("take") and has more contraindications because the virus can replicate and be transmitted to close contacts. JYNNEOS (also called Imvamune or Imvanex in different countries) – a non-replicating vaccinia-based vaccine. It generally has a more favorable safety profile and has also been approved in several countries for protection against mpox. An interesting consequence One reason preparedness remains a concern is that routine vaccination ended decades ago. As a result, most people born after the 1970s have never received a smallpox vaccine. If smallpox were ever reintroduced, public health authorities would rely on stockpiled vaccines and rapid vaccination of contacts—an approach similar to the ring vaccination strategy used during the eradication campaign. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c26ac12e-4c5e-42b1-8f11-8ae03f23cfc6-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c26ac12e-4c5e-42b1-8f11-8ae03f23cfc6-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-turn="assistant"> Smallpox No country routinely vaccinates children against smallpox anymore. After WHO declared smallpox eradicated in 1980, countries gradually stopped routine vaccination. Today, vaccination is generally limited to: laboratory workers, certain military personnel, some emergency response teams, and occasionally close contacts if there were ever an exposure. So even in many African countries where smallpox was once common, routine smallpox vaccination ended decades ago. Polio This is very different. Many countries still routinely vaccinate children against polio, including many in Africa, Asia, and parts of the Middle East, because wild poliovirus has not been eradicated globally. Examples include countries such as: Nigeria Pakistan Afghanistan Democratic Republic of the Congo Chad Somalia Sudan In addition, many countries conduct mass vaccination campaigns whenever poliovirus is detected or there is a risk of an outbreak. Other vaccines still routinely given in Africa Many national immunization programs also include: Measles Tuberculosis (BCG) Diphtheria Tetanus Pertussis (whooping cough) Hepatitis B Rotavirus Pneumococcal disease Yellow fever (in endemic regions) So there are still large vaccination campaigns in Africa, but they are not for smallpox. One reason the confusion is understandable The smallpox vaccine and the mpox (formerly monkeypox) response are connected. During recent mpox outbreaks, some countries vaccinated people at high risk using smallpox vaccines because they also protect against mpox. That wasn't a return to routine childhood smallpox vaccination—it was targeted use for a related disease. So if you saw recent news about Africa and "smallpox vaccine," it was likely referring to mpox control, not because smallpox itself had returned. In short: Smallpox: routine vaccination ended worldwide after eradication. Polio: still routinely vaccinated in many countries because eradication is not yet complete. Mpox: some people receive a modern smallpox vaccine because it also provides protection against mpox. Stigma HIV/AIDS stigma is widespread in South Africa: a 2002 national survey revealed that 26% of respondents were unwilling to share a meal with a person living with AIDS, 18% were unwilling to sleep in the same room as with someone with AIDS, and 6% were unwilling to talk to a person with AIDS.[1] AIDS-related stigma is most severe among township residents in South Africa because they lack access to reliable information about the disease. Many South Africans in townships wrongly believe that HIV is transmitted through proximity to HIV-positive individuals, which leads them to claim that people with AIDS should be socially ostracized. In addition, many traditional groups believe that ancestral spirits and supernatural forces punish those who have failed to lead moral lives by infecting them with HIV. According to a study published in 2004, South Africans who attributed HIV/AIDS to spirits and the supernatural were more likely to claim that people with HIV/AIDS were "dirty," "repulsive," "cursed," and "foolish" and should "have restrictions on their freedom," "be isolated," and "feel guilty and ashamed." Women are particularly vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection and stigma because they are often economically dependent on men and frequently lack access to education. Men who have the disease may avoid testing and remain anonymous, but women who undergo pre-natal testing are less likely to escape a diagnosis. Because women are often identified as HIV-positive before men, they are branded as the spreaders of the disease and may subsequently face physical abuse and abandonment. A study conducted in 2010 indicated that the majority of girls in a Cape Town township correlated thinness with disease – in particular, HIV/AIDS. Because of this, women who are slender or experience weight loss also face discrimination. This form of stigma affects women living in townships most severely because rates of malnourishment are higher in townships than in other parts of South Africa. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:640d84c4-b107-4097-a31c-3a76b5b823f6-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:640d84c4-b107-4097-a31c-3a76b5b823f6-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-turn="assistant"> What has improved South Africa has one of the world's largest HIV treatment programs. Millions of people now receive antiretroviral therapy, and public education about HIV has expanded dramatically. Compared with 20–25 years ago: More people understand that HIV is not spread through casual contact such as sharing meals, hugging, or being in the same room. HIV testing has become much more routine. People who take effective antiretroviral therapy can often suppress the virus to undetectable levels, greatly improving health and preventing sexual transmission (the "U=U" concept—Undetectable = Untransmittable). Because of these changes, the extreme fears described in the 2002 survey have generally declined. What has not disappeared Stigma remains a significant issue, particularly in some communities. It can still include: Fear of disclosing an HIV diagnosis. Concerns about losing relationships or employment. Shame associated with testing positive. Gender-based discrimination, where women may still face blame or violence after a diagnosis. Misconceptions in some areas about how HIV is transmitted. These problems are not unique to South Africa, but they have been studied extensively there because of the country's large HIV epidemic. Traditional beliefs The passage you quoted discusses beliefs that HIV is caused by ancestral spirits or moral failings. Those beliefs have not disappeared entirely, but they are not representative of all South Africans. South Africa is culturally diverse, and attitudes vary greatly by: education, urban versus rural residence, age, religious beliefs, and access to healthcare. Researchers continue to find that traditional and supernatural explanations for illness exist in some communities, although they generally coexist with biomedical explanations rather than completely replacing them. Women The discussion about women remains partly relevant. Women in South Africa continue to account for a large share of new HIV infections, particularly young women. Economic dependence, gender inequality, and intimate partner violence remain recognized risk factors. However, access to prenatal HIV testing and treatment has improved enormously, leading to major reductions in mother-to-child transmission compared with the early 2000s. The "thinness" issue The association between weight loss and HIV was particularly strong before effective treatment became widely available. During that period, advanced AIDS often caused severe weight loss ("wasting syndrome"), so people sometimes assumed that anyone who became thin had HIV. Today, because many people receive effective treatment before developing advanced disease, that visual stereotype is generally less common than it was 15–20 years ago, although it has not disappeared completely in some communities. Overall, the situation has improved substantially since the period described in your excerpt. HIV-related stigma has declined in many settings, but it remains an important public health and social issue, especially where misinformation, poverty, or gender inequality continue to influence people's experiences.   Smallpox Reclassified Taken from the excellent Kate Sugak presentation The Truth About Smallpox.   While a smallpox vaccine had been available since the late 1700's, this pesky disease, said to be caused by the "variola virus," still hung around for nearly two more centuries. By the mid-20th century, smallpox was claimed to be eradicated from America and other industrialized nations even without mass vaccination campaigns. However, third world countries were still being ravaged by this disease. Thus in 1958, the WHO called for a global eradication effort utilizing what has been referred to as "the most dangerous vaccine known to man" to finally stamp out this disease once and for all. Interestingly, that same year, the identical in every way "monkeypox virus" was "discovered" in cynomolgus monkeys. What an amazing coincidence, right? This new "virus" eventually made the leap into humans a decade later when an infant came down with smallpox in Zaire. However, the child's village had been declared smallpox free due to the mass vaccination of the entire village the year before. If smallpox was allowed to be diagnosed in a "smallpox-free" zone, this could have easily led to questions regarding the vaccine's effectiveness. Thus, after initial testing diagnosed the child with smallpox, further testing was carried out by the CDC. It was ultimately decided that this child was not a smallpox case but was instead the very first known case of human monkeypox. I detailed this ridiculous situation more in-depth at viroLIEgy.com and I will provide the relevant articles in the recommended reading section. The convenient emergence of monkeypox was a great way to cover up the fact that the same symptoms associated with smallpox still existed. It also offered the ability to cover-up the deadly vaccine injuries as well.   However, monkeypox was not the only new disease that popped up with the exact same smallpox symptoms. According to Dr. Viera Scheibner (PhD), a retired scientist and author, there were other similar diseases used as a scapegoat for the dangerous and ineffective vaccine: Belief not science is behind flu jab promotion, new report says "Harmful reactions and ineffectiveness of smallpox vaccination motivated the "eradication" campaign of the 1970s. Smallpox was pronounced eradicated on 8th May 1980, vaccination stopped and epidemics disappeared, bar small outbreaks of whitepox, buffalopox, monkeypox, camelpox and similar names, while the disease was indistinguishable from smallpox. According to Arita and Gromyko (1982. Bull WHO; 60 (4): 367-375), the main benefit of smallpox being pronounced officially eradicated was that vaccination could be discontinued in all countries. Simply, smallpox vaccination had become an embarrassment." https://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e7856/rr/620395 Dr. Scheibner pointed out that buffalopox, whitepox, camelpox, and other diseases with similar names and symptoms began to appear in the place of smallpox. However, she didn't factor in that smallpox was also regularly confused with measles, chickenpox, scarlett fever, rubella, herpes, shingles, etc. since its conception in 1751 as a separate disease. Each of these conditions result in the same symptoms of disease with very minute "differences" said to distinguish them. At one point in time, they were all considered varying stages of the same disease process. None of these diseases can be clinically distinguished and diagnosed accurately based on symptoms alone due to these similarities, thus the need for nonspecific antibody results and/or fraudulent molecular tests today to rule in or out one or the other. Breaking the same symptoms into separate diseases is not only a great way to lower case counts to improve the perception of vaccine effectiveness, it also serves the purpose of creating more fear of the invisible boogeymen now spreading and mutating from animals to humans. This results in the demand and need for different pharmaceuticals, vaccinations, and treatments to "cure" each condition, which obviously makes for a great business model. Polio Reclassified   Unlike smallpox, polio has not yet been "eradicated" by vaccines even though there have been two different vaccines available since the 1950's. However, as was observed previously, polio cases decreased dramatically before the introduction of these miracle "cures."   Thus, the reduction in polio can not be attributed to the Salk vaccine campaign introduced in 1955 nor the Sabin oral vaccine in 1959. What could have contributed to the serendipitous drop in polio cases beyond the improved sanitation and clean food and water? One possibility was the gradual discontinuation of dangerous pesticides and insecticides such as DDT, which concerned parents neglectfully sprayed on their children to combat polio. In 1949, Morton S. Biskind, M.D. wrote a paper looking at the effects of DDT on animals and humans. He spoke of the mysterious and elusive "Virus X" which was appearing more frequently each year with the increased use of DDT. This disease sounded quite a bit like polio, and according to Dr. Biskind, it was easily confused with the disease due to the findings of damage to the central nervous system: DDT Poisoning and the Elusive "Virus X."' A New Cause for Gastro-Enteritis "DURING A PERIOD of more than two years, numerous cases of a curious symptom complex, apparently never before reported, have been observed throughout the United States. For want of a satisfactory explanation for this ailment, it has been widely attributed to infection with a thus far illusory "virus X." The syndrome consists of a group of or all the following: Acute gastroenteritis occurs, with nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea usually associated with extreme tenesmus. Coryza, cough and persistent sore throat are common, often followed by a persistent or recurrent feeling of constriction or a "lump" in the throat; occasionally the sensation of constriction extends substernally and to the back and may be associated with severe pain in either arm. In some cases, the hyoid bone becomes acutely painful to pressure for a few days. Pain in the joints, generalized muscle weakness and exhausting fatigue are usual; the latter are often so severe in the acute stage as to be described bv some patients as "paralysis." Sometimes the initial attack is ushered in by vertigo and syncope. Intractable headache and giddiness are not uncommon. Occasionally herpes zoster appears. Paresthesia of various kinds occur in most of the cases; areas of skin become exquisitely hypersensitive and after a few days this hyperesthesia disappears only to recur elsewhere, or irregular numbness, tingling sensations, pruritus or formication may occur. Erratic fibrillary twitching of voluntary muscles is common. Usually there is diminution of vibratory sense in the extremities." "The high incidence, the usual absence of a febrile reaction, the persistence and erratic recurrence of the symptoms, the lack of observable inflammatory lesions, and the resistance even to palliative therapy, suggested an intoxication rather than an infection. Investigation for possible etiologic agents soon led to consideration of DDT (2, 2 bis (para-chlorophenyl) 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane; less precisely designated di-chlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). The epidemic first appeared at about the time DDT came into widespread use by the civilian population. The signs and symptoms described in tile pharmacologic andtoxicologic literature as characteristic of DDT poisoning, are identical with those appearing in patients with the affection described (1, to 13)." "As already indicated, a prominent feature in virtually all the patients was extreme apprehensiveness. This is probably explicable on the basis of functional and possibly even morphologic changes in the central nervous system produced by DDT, since in DDT poisoning in animals such disturbances are frequent.* * Needless to say, findings related to the nervous system, and muscular spasm and weakness in severe acute affections of this type. have led to confusion with such entities as meningitis and poliomyelitis. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18113629/   Researcher Jim West did a lot of work uncovering this connection between polio symptoms and pesticides. In a 2004 paper, he outlined more from Dr. Biskind where the doctor linked DDT to the same degeneration of the anterior horn cells attributed to polio: Pesticides and Polio: A Critique of Scientific Literature 'Biskind also describes physiological evidence of DDT poisoning that resembles polio physiology: "Particularly relevant to recent aspects of this problem are neglected studies by Lillie and his collaborators of the National Institutes of Health, published in 1944 and 1947 respectively, which showed that DDT may produce degeneration of the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord in animals. These changes do not occur regularly in exposed animals any more than they do in human beings, but they do appear often enough to be significant." He continues, bearing his exasperation in trying to make the obvious plain. "When the population is exposed to a chemical agent known to produce in animals lesions in the spinal cord resembling those in human polio, and thereafter the latter disease increases sharply in incidence and maintains its epidemic character year after year, is it unreasonable to suspect an etiologic relationship?" https://crazzfiles.com/pesticides-and-polio-a-critique-of-scientific-literature/   Jim West's article touches on other toxins such as BHC and lead-arsenic as potential contributing factors involved in the rising symptoms of polio along with DDT. Based on his painstaking research and meticulously plotted graphs, it is clear that there was a rise and fall in polio cases as the use of these toxins was introduced and then gradually reduced and phased out. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, DDT regulations began in the 1950s, ending with the cancellation of the use of the toxic pesticide in the US in 1972. If one wanted to create the appearance that the vaccines were a miracle cure, reducing exposure to toxins that cause the exact same symptoms of the disease targeted is a good place to start: "The U.S. Department of Agriculture, the federal agency with responsibility for regulating pesticides before the formation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1970, began regulatory actions in the late 1950s and 1960s to prohibit many of DDT's uses because of mounting evidence of the pesticide's declining benefits and environmental and toxicological effects. The publication in 1962 of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring stimulated widespread public concern over the dangers of improper pesticide use and the need for better pesticide controls. In 1972, EPA issued a cancellation order for DDT based on its adverse environmental effects, such as those to wildlife, as well as its potential human health risks." https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ddt-brief-history-and-status However, there was an even more obvious trick that was utilized in order to create the perception that polio cases declined with the introduction of the vaccines. Prior to the 1955 vaccination campaign, the WHO laid out the guidelines for how to make a diagnosis of either non-paralytic or paralytic polio in 1953. It was crucial for the WHO to make this distinction between cases that resulted in paralysis and those that did not for the ultimate success of the vaccination campaign, as will be shown later. In order to diagnose non-paralytic polio, the usual flu-like symptoms were all that were necessary to make a diagnosis even though this was considered less reliable than when confirming cases of paralytic polio. In those instances, all that was required to diagnose a patient with paralytic polio was the presence of the same flu-like symptoms as well as partial or complete paralysis upon two examinations carried out 24 hours apart. In neither non-paralytic nor paralytic polio were laboratory results necessary for a confirmation of a case: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/40241   In a 1956 bulletin by the WHO, it was admitted that at least two-thirds of the cases diagnosed as non-paralytic polio were, in fact, not polio and were instead caused by other "viruses" and bacteria. Thus, it was important that, for a case to be considered polio, paralysis must occur as this was seen as a defining feature and indicative of polio. This paralysis requirement stood even though it was admitted that there are other causes of paralysis. The separation of polio into those with and without paralysis was necessary as the vaccine was said not to be effective at preventing non-paralytic polio and was only effective at reducing paralytic polio. If these two conditions could not be separated, it would obscure the "beneficial effects" of the vaccination campaign: Poliomyelitis in 1954 "A variable proportion, which may be up to two-thirds or more, of cases diagnosed as non-paralytic poliomyelitis, presenting the clinical picture of aseptic meningitis, is due to other viruses (mumps, Coxsackie B, ECHO-6, Herpes simplex, LCM, various members of group A and group B encephalitis viruses, and others as yet undefined) as well as to bacteria (leptospirosis)." "Clinical disease resembling paralytic poliomyelitis may be due to other viruses (see the reports from Iceland, Egypt, and Massachusetts). RSSE may also cause confusion.9 But there is little doubt that apart from relatively infrequent episodes the great majority of paralytic cases are due to poliovirus. For this reason and because paralysis is the result of poliovirus infection, which is of major public health importance, it has been repeatedly stressed by the World Health Organization that the incidence of paralytic and non-paralytic cases should be reported separately. There are many countries where this is still not yet done. This will become increasingly important as poliomyelitis vaccination comes into wider use, since the evidence available so far suggests that the main result of vaccination is to decrease the number of paralytic cases, the number of non-paralytic cases being relatively unaffected. Unless the two groups can be separated the beneficial effect of vaccination may be obscured." https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2538162/ It can be seen that there was a concentrated effort to separate the symptoms of non-paralytic polio into many conditions caused by other "viruses" and bacteria, including: Mumps Coxsackie B ECHO-6 Herpes Simplex LCM Other non-polio "enteroviruses" Leptospirosis Other unknown "viruses" We can also see that they were beginning to make a distinction between cases of paralysis caused by the polio "virus" as well as those said to be caused by other "viruses." This separation would be utilized to decrease cases later. For now, polio was successfully divided into those cases with paralysis and those without. Once this distinction was accepted, another nifty trick was instigated in order to create the appearance that the vaccine was even more effective. According to a 1955 report by Thomas Francis, Jr. regarding the polio vaccine trials, the criteria for how a paralytic polio case was diagnosed changed from those listed by the WHO in 1953. Instead of only requiring the confirmation of paralysis on two examinations 24 hours apart to diagnose paralytic polio, a confirmation was now based on two examinations spread further apart: one at 10-20 days and another at 50-70 days. A confirmation also now included reports on "virus isolation," tests of antibody titer, and laboratory diagnosis, which were not required in 1953. The ability to diagnose a case of paralytic polio was now a lot more difficult for a physician. Still, even with all of these new diagnostic measures in place, Francis Jr. admitted that there were difficulties in decisions due to contradictory results: Evaluation of the 1954 Poliomyelitis Vaccine Field Trial "The second phase in the evaluation was concerned with discovery and identification of all cases of poliomyelitis or suspected poliomyelitis in all children of the first, second, and third grades in the study areas. The various steps in the investigation of a case are: (1) physician's diagnosis—report to local health department; (2) telegraphic report to vaccine evaluation center; (3) action of local health department, including (a) clinicoepidemiological investigation and report to vaccine evaluation center, form FT-6, (b) collection and shipment of laboratory specimens (or by laboratory) and notice to vaccine evaluation center, form FT-9, and (c) notification of physical therapist; (4) first muscle evaluation by physical therapist (10 to 20 days) and physician's interpretation of patient's status, form FT-7; (5) collection of convalescent serum for laboratory, form FT-9; (6) second muscle evaluation by physical therapist (50 to 70 days) and physician's interpretation of patient's entire illness, form FT-8; (7) report of virus isolation, tests of antibody titer, laboratory diagnosis, form FT-10; (8) establishment and application of criteria for diagnosis of individual patient; and (9) integration of all data into final vaccine evaluation center diagnosis. The criteria for diagnosis of poliomyelitis, for designation of a case as paralytic and its severity, and for the interpretation of laboratory results were carefully drawn. In this we had the continued help of an advisory committee comprised of expert clinicians, virologists, biostatisticians, epidemiologists, and administrators. The information concerning each case was carefully reviewed and the diagnostic classification made without knowledge of its vaccination status so that objectivity was readily maintained. Inevitably, difficulties in decision were encountered when results from different pieces of data were not in agreement, but the effort was made to follow a consistent plan of interpretation." The reason that this change in how paralytic polio was diagnosed is important was summarized by Dr. Bernard G. Greenberg. He testified to Congress in 1962 that the reduction in polio cases was not brought about by vaccination but was instead due to the adoption of this redefinition of the paralytic polio diagnosis. By spreading out paralysis to 60 days and beyond, a new long-lasting paralytic polio disease was created: https://web.archive.org/web/20201216143101/https://www.vaccination-information-portal.com/wp-content/uploads/participants-database/ratner_1960.pdf As can be seen from Dr. Greenberg, the change in diagnostic criteria for polio was all that was necessary in order to see a drop in paralytic polio. No vaccine was ever necessary. And to help sell this point, a graph was provided applying the new diagnostic criteria to polio cases from 1951 to 1959 which showed how the drop would have occurred had this criterion been used before the vaccine became available:   In order to confirm that the adoption of the vaccine trial diagnostic criteria was, in fact, used when reporting vaccine effectiveness and paralytic polio case numbers, we can turn to the book Poliomyelitis Surveillance. It indeed confirms this to be the case as the CDC officially counted paralytic polio cases according to the "best available paralytic poliomyelitis case count," or BAPPCC. This count required that paralysis occurs up to 60 days. If there was no residual paralysis at 60 days, the cases were excluded from the count:   In 1969, the CDC officially adopted this 60-day requirement as the case definition for paralytic polio: "ACIP. Poliomyelitis prevention. MMWR 1982;31:22-6, 31-4. *Since 1969, the CDC definition of a case of paralytic poliomyelitis has been a patient with paralysis clinically and epidemiologically compatible with poliomyelitis who, at 60 days after onset of symptoms, has a residual neurologic deficit, has died, or for whom no information is available on neurologic residua." https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000706.htm It should be clear now that the change in diagnostic criteria for paralytic polio was the driving factor in reducing polio cases in an attempt to prop up the effectiveness of the toxic vaccines. However, this redefinition could not eliminate the symptoms of polio and wipe them from existence. As these symptoms would still persist, polio-related diseases such as aseptic meningitis and coxsackie were branched off into their own categories: The polio vaccine: a critical assessment of its arcane history, efficacy, and long-term health-related consequences "Doctors and scientists on the staff of the National Institutes of Health during the 1950s were well aware that the Salk vaccine was causing polio. Some frankly stated that it was "worthless as a preventive and dangerous to take [26:142]." They refused to vaccinate their own children [26:142]. Health departments banned the inoculations [26:140]. The Idaho State Health Director angrily declared: "I hold the Salk vaccine and its manufacturers responsible" for a polio outbreak that killed several Idahoans and hospitalized dozens more [26:140]. Even Salk himself was quoted as saying: "When you inoculate children with a polio vaccine you don't sleep well for two or three weeks [26:144;43]." But the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, and drug companies with large investments in the vaccine coerced the U.S. Public Health Service into falsely proclaiming the vaccine was safe and effective [26:142-5]."   "Polio is virtually nonexistent in the United States today. However, according to Dr. Robert Mendelsohn, medical investigator and pediatrician, there is no credible scientific evidence that the vaccine caused polio to disappear [50]. From 1923 to 1953, before the Salk killed-virus vaccine was introduced, the polio death rate in the United States and England had already declined on its own by 47 percent and 55 percent, respectively (Figure 4) [51]. Statistics show a similar decline in other European countries as well [51]. And when the vaccine did become available, many European countries questioned its effectiveness and refused to systematically inoculate their citizens. Yet, polio epidemics also ended in these countries [50]. The standards for defining polio were changed when the polio vaccine was introduced. The new definition of a polio epidemic required more cases to be reported. Paralytic polio was redefined as well, making it more difficult to confirm, and therefore tally, cases. Prior to the introduction of the vaccine the patient only had to exhibit paralytic symptoms for 24 hours. Laboratory confirmation and tests to determine residual paralysis were not required. The new definition required the patient to exhibit paralytic symptoms for at least 60 days, and residual paralysis had to be confirmed twice during the course of the disease. Also, after the vaccine was introduced cases of aseptic meningitis (an infectious disease often difficult to distinguish from polio) and coxsackie virus infections were more often reported as separate diseases from polio. But such cases were counted as polio before the vaccine was introduced. The vaccine's reported effectiveness was therefore skewed (Table 1 and Figure 5) [52,53]." https://docshare.tips/journal-article-the-polio-vaccine-neil-z-miller_5742f5edb6d87f75968b495e.html Old polio-associated diseases such as aseptic meningitis and coxsackie "virus" were broken away from polio in order to siphon off the cases previously diagnosed as such. Other conditions also appeared and became more frequently pegged as the culprit of paralysis instead of polio such as Guillain-Barre syndrome, acute traumatic neuritis, enteroviral myelitis, myopathy, etc. Even rabies, tetanus, and the West Nile "virus" are associated with the same symptoms of disease. For many decades, acute flaccid paralysis was the name for cases of polio as this was the defining condition of the disease. However, even though the two labels are interchangeable, an effort has been made over the decades to try and distinguish the two from each other. Now, it is stated that as polio (a.k.a. acute flaccid paralysis) goes away, AFP will stick around due to non-polio "enteroviruses" and other causes such as novel recombinant "viruses." In other words, the same symptoms are being shifted away from the polio "virus" and onto other suspects: Polio will go, acute flaccid paralysis will stay "But as the Global Polio Eradication Initiative and the scientific community plan to celebrate polio eradication sooner or later, there is need for recognition that the risk of acute flaccid paralysis due to other enteroviruses is still high. Acute flaccid paralysis is a weakness in one or more limbs or the respiratory or bulbar muscles, resulting from damaged lower motor neurons. The most common viral causes are polio and non-polio enteroviruses. As polio gradually disappears globally, there is major concern about the probable emergence of other neurotropic enteroviruses to occupy the niche and cause infections mimicking acute paralytic poliomyelitis. Enterovirus 71 for example has been regarded as the second most important neurotropic enterovirus, causing frequent outbreaks of paralytic disease. A crude mortality rate of 16% in children younger than 14 years was observed during an enterovirus 71 outbreak between 1998 and 2005 in Taiwan. Also, and equally important, is recombination between vaccine-derived poliovirus and other enteroviruses, which might result in the emergence of novel recombinant viruses causing similar paralytic diseases. Over the past decades, several non-polio enteroviruses have been discovered and some implicated in acute flaccid paralysis of unprecedented severity." https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(14)61080-1/fulltext More recently, a condition known as acute flaccid myelitis has made its presence felt. This is a relatively new disease that was "discovered" in 2010. It is an offshoot of acute flaccid paralysis, which for all intents and purposes was paralytic polio until 2010. Now, AFM has successfully taken over the title as it is defined as poliomyelitis not caused by the polio "virus," thus it is yet another condition that is used to explain away cases of poliomyelitis still occurring today. The only difference separating the two diseases are the results from fraudulent laboratory tests which must be confirmed by an "expert" panel. In other words, AFM can be referred to as either non-polio polio or, my personal favorite, incognito polio: How is AFM different from polio? "Poliomyelitis is the term used to describe the syndrome of acute flaccid limb weakness and lesions in the grey matter of the spinal cord. Poliomyelitis caused by poliovirus, or polio, rarely occurs in the United States. In 2014, the term AFM was adopted to describe poliomyelitis without a known cause and not caused by poliovirus. AFM has some similarities with polio, such as the lesions in the grey matter of the spinal cord and flaccid limb weakness that can result in paralysis. Polio can be prevented by a vaccine. Stool specimens that we receive from AFM patients are tested for poliovirus. If poliovirus is detected, it is considered a case of polio, not a case of AFM. We continue to test all specimens from AFM patients to look for viruses, including poliovirus and non-polio enteroviruses." https://www.cdc.gov/acute-flaccid-myelitis/faqs.html "All suspected cases of paralytic poliomyelitis are reviewed by a panel of expert consultants before final classification occurs. Confirmed cases are then further classified based on epidemiologic and laboratory criteria." https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt12-polio.html Perfect example of circular logic.   Hopefully, the magic tricks utilized to create the appearance of the effectiveness of the vaccines have become clearer now and will no longer be effective to persuade anyone on the fence. When a "virus" needs to be either eradicated or minimized, all it takes is hiding the symptoms of disease under various names and disguises with either a new "viral" and/or bacterial cause. This decrease can also be helped along by reducing or eliminating environmental toxins associated with the same symptoms of disease and by changing the diagnostic criteria in order to make diagnosis less likely as seen in the case with polio. We have seen this same situation with "Covid-19." When the flu and other respiratory "viruses" needed to disappear for 'Covid" to emerge, the symptoms were lumped into "Covid" along with many other unrelated ailments. Remember "Covid toes" and MIS-C, a.k.a. frostbite and Kawasaki disease? Cases of all "non-Covid" diseases dropped dramatically, even cancers and heart attacks. However, once the vaccine needed to be shown to be effective, "Covid" cases decreased while the "flu" and "RSV" re-emerged along with other respiratory diseases and ailments. They can keep this magic trick going as long as we continue to get hoodwinked by their theatrics. However, if you can see past the illusions, they will have to come up with new tricks in order to fool you. Let's continue to unveil their deceptions until they have nothing left to pull out of their hat. The Rabies Hoax: Shocking Corruption – a Deep Dive into a DEADLY SCAM by AGENT131711 | May 19, 2024 The Rabies vaccine is one of the most diabolically brilliant because humans rush to take it after they are bitten by an animal. Those who suffer adverse events or death are counted as a Rabies Death, therefore it is impossible to find fault with the vaccine. When it comes to stuff like this, I often ask myself, "How the hell did we get here?". I thought I would look into the history of Rabies for a couple hours to find out. I had no idea just how crazy and shocking this rabbit hole would be. If Netflix made genuine documentaries about real topics, this would be at the top of their list. Rabies Virus & Cures Even before the creation of the life-saving Rabies vaccine, the medicine men were selling cures. These remedies consisted of "hair of the dog that bit you" being chewed and swallowed by the bite victim as well as "mad stone" treatment, in which a rock was rubbed all over the area of the bite to "draw out the madness". There was also a piece of the Kings clothing and if you're lucky enough to get this cure just holding it was enough to save you. Later, a cockroach cure was discovered as well as my absolute favorite cure which was ground-up jaw bone of a donkey or dog, plus a piece of colt's tongue and the green rust off a penny of George the First; if your scavenger hunt resulted in obtaining all of these items, you are 100% protected. Yes, this is real, and guess what? History says these cures successfully kept rabies out of New York for twenty years. See, I told you it was one heck of a rabbit hole. Let's start by discussing what Rabies is: In both animals and humans, Rabies is identified as absolutely any symptom one of more of the following symptoms: lethargy fever vomiting anorexia ataxia (lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements) weakness paralysis seizures difficulty breathing difficulty swallowing excessive salivation abnormal behavior aggression self-mutilation fever difficulty swallowing excessive drooling foaming at the mouth and more or none… a Rabid animal might not have symptoms at all… In humans, it's Rabies only if the symptoms occur after being bitten or scratched by an animal. So let's say, tomorrow morning you wake up and suddenly have difficulty swallowing; were you bitten by an animal? If you answered "No", you probably have Herpes. If you say, "Yeah, I was feeding a squirrel a peanut and one bit me by accident", then YES, it's 100% for sure Rabies and you need a vaccine, pronto! Very Scientific! Now that you understand how it works, let's dive into some of the craziest sh*t you've never heard, all in the name of STOPPING THE SPREAD. How Rabies was Discovered According to a book written in 1890, Scientist Louis Pasteur discovered the Rabies Virus by drilling holes into laboratory dogs skulls and injecting them with what he suspected to be rabies virus. The dogs became Rabid (meaning, they displayed some symptoms from the massive list of basically every symptom), and boom, proof of the rabies virus! But, if you were doubting Mr. Pasteur's study, according to a different Rabies specialist, you should have a 100% success rate infecting animals with Rabies Virus if you inject it specifically into their brain(not just the skull, pinpoint that brain!). If your brain-injection does not produce Rabies (symptoms), you are doing it wrong: So clearly, Rabies is very dangerous and must be stopped before everyone dies. It was becoming glaringly obvious that the only solution to fight Rabies was a Big Pharma payday vaccine. Now that Science had learned so much about Rabies and the severity of the virus, Rabies was suddenly being discovered all over by the USA by none other than the US government. In fact, Rabies became so bad that, in 1916, the Secretary of Agriculture asked Congress for $75,000 (in tax dollars) so they could begin slaughtering wolves, coyotes and "other predatory animals" in the Northwest states. The goal was to completely eliminate these species in Utah, Nevada, Idaho, California, Oregon, and Washington, because, they claimed, they ALL could be rabid and were infecting livestock with the virus. (Psssssst! Wolves were later discovered to be Endangered, and have been on the Endangered Species List ever since) To make matters crazier, Rabies can only be tested for after death of the animal.     This means there is absolutely no way to prove an animal is Rabid while it is alive. It must first be slaughtered. This means, the wolves, coyotes and predatory animals who were to be mass executed, were never proven to be sick to begin with. This entire extermination plan was based on some farm animals falling ill. And, because there was no test for Rabies there was no way of knowing what the livestock was sick with. A Closer Look While tax dollars were funding the intentional extinction of wildlife some doctors and scientists were skeptical of the Rabies Virus and began doing their own research. What they discovered was alarming, to say the least. Upon closer examination of Moscow, Russia hospital records, researchers discovered that people who died in ER from Rabies were attacked by a wolf and bitten in the head. In fact, it would turn out that almost all of the Moscow Rabies deaths involved severe bites or other life-threatening injuries. So, basically, a wolf ate your face off and you die, boom, Rabies! Nobody Can Find the Rabies Other than the US government, Rabies vaccine developers and doctors who got paid to administer the vaccine, nobody could seem to find Rabies, so that's weird, eh? And trust me, the researchers looked. Here's some of the people that tried really hard to find this stealthy Rabies Virus: Dr. Charles W. Dulles, lecturer on the History of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, was appointed by the Medical Societies to investigate rabies. After sixteen years of investigation he had "failed to find a single case on record that can be conclusively proved to have resulted from the bite of a dog or any other cause". Numerous other professionals came to the same conclusion as Dr. Dulles, including Dr. Theophilus Parvin, who was President of the National Academy of Medicine, Dr. Thomas G. Morten a Coroners Physician, Dr. Charles K. Mills of the University of Pennsylvania and Dr. Thomas I. Mays of the Polyclinic Hospital. Dr. Wilcox of New York investigated NY's Rabies Scare because of eleven alleged deaths from rabid dog bites. His investigation concluded that not one of these deaths were due to Rabies. Dr. Elmer Lee ended another rabies scare on Staten Island. Upon performing an autopsy, the rabid dogs were found to have died of worms, not Rabies. The worms were lodged in the heart of the animal, causing the animal extreme pain. The animal was lashing out due to severe discomfort, not a virus. Even under oath testimony, dating all the way back to 1887, showed that back then no Rabies had been found relating to police men who received dig bites:   After receiving these absurd results, Dr. Stillman went to the Department of Agriculture and insisted that, instead of senselessly murdering dogs to have them tested, they should, "hold all dogs declared rabid to see if any cases of rabies would develop". Eventually the Department of Ag agreed, and, to everyone's shock, not one case of rabies appeared in any quarantined dog… ever… and over a decade later, none had appeared. In fact, not a single quarantined dog died and 100% of their symptoms subsided. Further research by these honest doctors and scientists determined the cause of so-called Rabies. All of the Rabies cases in animals, which cause the animals to behave violently or crazily, "can be attributed to malnutrition, maltreatment, or, in many cases, both". And, in numerous cases, the animals had health issues, not related to Rabies. So yeah, the animals were underfed, abused, or in severe discomfort due to health complications, which caused them to lash out… They also concluded that, in humans, Rabies was caused by "disordered imagination", meaning FEAR, also known as Nocebo Effect; if you think you're going to get deathly ill because a doctors assured you that you were, you are going to get sick. Like the old saying goes, mind over matter. This is why, at one point in history, the German treatment for Rabies was a warm bath, and it had nearly flawless success rates. People were told the hot water removed the rabies, meanwhile the water relaxed them. They believed it worked, therefore it did. This also explains why "hair of the dog that bit you" , the Mad Stone Treatment, and a piece of the Kings clothing were successful in preventing multiple decades worth of rabies in New York. MIND OVER MATTER. A Deadly Lie Here's a few utterly shocking examples of the horror caused by Rabies vaccines, indubitably recorded as Rabies deaths: A mailman was attacked by a dog, however the dogs teeth did not puncture his skin, so he chose not to get a Rabies vaccine and he remained in perfect health… until his employer forced him to get vaccinated. Within one month of the injection, severe symptoms of Rabies set in, accompanied by extreme pain at the injection site. Two days after the symptoms appeared he died of paralytic "hydrophobia"… which means he died of Rabies. In a another case, a young woman's parents saw a bite mark on her neck. Under questioning, the young woman told her parents she was bit by a dog. Out of fear of Rabies her parents rushed her to get the vaccine. She became violently ill and died. After the funeral her parents discovered that the bite mark was not from a dog but was instead from a young man the woman was secretly frolicking with. And, it's not just humans who die from these injections:     Deadly Animal Injections In the late 1880s, rabies vaccinations were given to 4,564 sheep in Russia, of which 3,696 died. The identical inoculation campaign was ran in a different Russian city and the identical results occurred; only 19% survived. Money and Power While the good doctors and scientists were trying to end the Rabies scare, the medical industry was pushing hard to advance Rabies injections. Due to the industries efforts, Rabies treatments became mainstream and when they resulted in death, Rabies was to blame. I told you, it's diabolically brilliant! You need to understand that the Veterinary industry lobbies for medical treatments because Veterinarians receive a large percentage of both their gross income and profit from vaccines given in their offices. As of the early 2000's, on average, Rabies vaccines cost only $0.60 to $0.95 per dose, yet are charged to the client at $15 to $25 per injection. Large cities often charge more, making it the biggest markup of any industry. How We Got Here: Despite no cases of rabies on record, beginning around the 1970's, most states in the USA were convinced by Rabies vaccine lobbyists to begin requiring Rabies shots for dogs within the first three to four months of life (some states additionally require the shot for cats and ferrets too). It was then realized that there is a wealth of money to be made off pets, so states also began requiring tagging and licensing. Dr. John Fudens, D.V.M. writes: "From 1964 to 1978 there were zero cases of dog rabies in the county. Magically in 1978, the rabies vaccine was mandated to be given every year and all dogs tagged and licensed. WHY? Well, it seems four veterinarians, with animal control bureaucrats, pushed the county board of supervisors to pass a law mandating rabies vaccination every year. There were three local vets and one professor from the State Veterinary College who were behind this … Not once was the issue discussed that there were no rabies cases in the county in dogs. To date, there still has not been one case of dog rabies, including the population of dogs whose owners who do not vaccinate for rabies." The F*cked Up Science They Call "A Rabies Virus" and a "Vaccine" Scientists needed to create the Rabies Vaccine and prove it works, so, what made sense to them was essentially injecting eggs, cheese and Horse Serum into animals. Sadly, I am not joking. Let's take a closer look: Injecting Cheese, Egg Yolk & "Horse Serum"       When you hear "inoculation", you probably never thought of eggs, but yeah. Here's the recipes, in case you want to whip up your own Rabies Vaccine in your spare time: First, grab some rabbits. What you are going to want to do is inject the rabbits with the vaccine (Eggs, Cheese, etc), then inject them with the Virus and see if they go Rabid. You can obtain the virus from any dead animal who is suspected to have Rabies, or, the more popular option is to just make the poison in a lab and call it a virus. This means, when you see the word virus below you can replace it with the word poison. (I'm not kidding, this is what they really did:) EGG YOLK & EGG WHITE JABS: Start with a fresh rabbit. Make the vaccine by mixing the white of hens eggs with equal part distilled water. Next you filter it, then it is ready to inject. Inject the egg white six times within 11 days, followed by an injection of the Rabies Virus, then proceed with daily injections of egg. Result: Sadly, Rabies killed these rabbits on the 4th day of injection. It's unfortunate, but the Egg Vaccine seems to not offer much protection.? EGG YOLK, METHOD #2: Scientists were pretty damn sure that Eggs are the answer, so although the jabs didn't stop rabies, they theorized that perhaps if it was administered intravenously, it would. What you are going to want to do is inject the Rabies Virus into your rabbits, then give them six intravenous doses of Egg White within 15 days following the Virus jab. Results: After the virus jab and the six doses of Egg Whites, that Godforsaken Rabies began appearing in these rabbits on the 14th day! The Rabies killed them on the 18th day, thus proving how deadly the virus is. Lord, please help us find a vaccine that works!     DEUTEROPROTEOSE JAB: Deuteroproteose means a protein obtained from cheese (casein). To make this, you want to get some milk, "physiologic salt" and "170 solution" (your guess is as good as mine…). Mix these together to make the cheese-salt-chemical solution, then inject your rabbits five to six times during a 15-day period. Result: The rabbits became paralyzed and all died by the 20th day following the injections, so, it would appear that cheese, chemicals and salt doesn't stop Rabies. ? HORSE SERUM JAB: You can use Horse Serum right out of the bottle, no need to dilute. You will want to inject this five times before you inject the Rabies Virus. After the virus inoculation, you want to continue Horse Serum injections daily in smaller doses. Results: Shockingly, these rabbits all developed Rabies on the 4th and 5th day, then died the same day! Gosh, this Rabies virus is f*cking horrible! If only Dr. Fauci was alive back then to help us get through this storm… TYPHOID BACTERIA: Typhoid, they claim, is a bacterial infectious disorder contracted by consumption of food or drink contaminated with Salmonella typhi. This dangerous bacteria is what is used to create the Typhoid Vaccine, so Scientists considered that perhaps it can stop Rabies too, makes sense to me! For this experiment, you are going to want to inject the rabbits with Rabies Virus first, then inject the Typhoid Bacteria six times within 15 days. Results: Crud. This didn't work either. The rabbits became paralyzed and all died from Rabies within 21 days after the Rabies Virus injection. ? THE CONTROL GROUP: In order to conduct a Scientific experiment, you must have a Control Group. In this experiment, the Control Group consisted of only 4 rabbits, which were injected with Rabies Virus but were not given egg, cheese-salt-chemical blend, deadly bacteria or horse serum to protect them… until immediately after the virus inoculation, after which the control group also received daily injections of Egg. RESULTS: Two died on the fourth day and the other two became paralyzed and died by the sixth day, thus proving how horrible the virus is and how desperately a vaccine needs to be created.   SOURCE:  The Rabies Hoax • Zero-Sum References Beardsley, Edward H. A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987. Beecher, Henry K. "Ethics and Clinical Research." New England Journal of Medicine 274, no. 24 (1966): 1354–1360. Brandt, Allan M. "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study." The Hastings Center Report 8, no. 6 (1978): 21– Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora Infection). Atlanta: CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Typhoid Fever and Paratyphoid Fever. Atlanta: CDC. Dubos, René. Louis Pasteur: Free Lance of Science. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1950. Escherich, Theodor. Die Darmbakterien des Säuglings und ihre Beziehungen zur Physiologie der Verdauung. Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke, 1886. Fee, Elizabeth, and Theodore M. Brown. Making Medical History: The Life and Times of the U.S. Public Health Service. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, 1997. Jones, David S. Rationalizing Epidemics: Meanings and Uses of American Indian Mortality since 1600. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. Koch, Robert. Gesammelte Werke. Berlin: Julius Springer. Lederer, Susan E. Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. Leavitt, Judith Walzer. Typhoid Mary: Captive to the Public's Health. Boston: Beacon Press, 1996. Lifton, Robert Jay. The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York: Basic Books, 1986. Mitscherlich, Alexander, and Fred Mielke. Doctors of Infamy: The Story of the Nazi Medical Crimes. New York: Henry Schuman, 1949. Proctor, Robert N. Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. Reed, Walter, Victor C. Vaughan, and Edward O. Shakespeare. Report on the Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in U.S. Military Camps during the Spanish War of 1898. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904. Rosen, George. A History of Public Health. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Rothman, David J. Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making. New York: Basic Books, 1991. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Nazi Medical Experiments. Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. U.S. Army Center of Military History. Preventive Medicine in World War II. Washington, DC: Department of the Army. U.S. Army Medical Department. Communicable and Other Diseases. Washington, DC: Office of The Surgeon General. U.S. Army Medical Department. Preventive Medicine in World War I. Washington, DC: Office of The Surgeon General. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, DC, 1979. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. Geneva: WHO, 2006. World Health Organization. Guidelines on Sanitation and Health. Geneva: WHO, 2018. Primary Sources The Nuremberg Doctors' Trial Transcripts The Nuremberg Code (1947) Walter Reed's Typhoid Board Report (1904) The Belmont Report (1979) U.S. Army Preventive Medicine in World War II U.S. Army Preventive Medicine in World War I Office of the Surgeon General, U.S. Army Medical Department historical reports Robert Koch's published papers on cholera and bacteriology Theodor Escherich's original publication describing E. coli James Hobrecht's reports on Berlin's sewer system About the Image: If you're wondering why I ended this page with a pig-faced doctor, it's from my favorite Twilight Zone episode, "Eye of the Beholder" (Season 2, Episode 6). In one of television's greatest twists, a young woman undergoes repeated medical procedures to "correct" her appearance. Only at the end does the audience discover that beauty and normality have been completely inverted in that society. The doctors, nurses, and everyone considered "normal" have pig-like faces, while the patient looks conventionally human. If you've never seen the episode, it's worth watching. The USA   "Americans believe that the United States of America became a separate country following its War of Independence against the British in 1783.   However, what happened was the setting up of the USA as a corporation subject to British maritime law. If you don't believe me then when you watch Obama speaking what do you think the gold border around your flag signifies?   So, if the US is just a corporation, not a country where's the evidence? Should we look for the Queen signing off acts of Parliament which automatically apply to the USA -   legislation.gov.uk/uksi… - it isn't the only one.   The one above was the Queen dictating social security legislation to the IRS. Still think you're independent."  IRS Forces U.S. Citizens To Pay A Percentage Of Their Taxes To The Queen Of The UK Deep State – Political Vel Craft     References USA History   UNITED STATES is a Corporation - There are Two Constitutions - Sovereignty    Federal Reserve - The Enemy of America    A history lesson for Americans. You're still British. – Patriots for Truth    bankruptcyofus.pdf    War and Emergency Powers       Media Release: The People Are the Enemy    "Since March 9, 1933, the United States has been in a state of declared national emergency Powers listed:    Seize property     Organize and control production     Seize commodities     Assign military forces abroad     Institute martial law     Seize transportation     Seize communications     Regulate private enterprise     Restrict travel     Control lives of citizens     (Source attributed in text: Senate Report 93-549)    14th Amendment | AntiCorruption Society        The IRS is not a US government agency.  It is an agency of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Diversified Metal Products v I.R.S et al.  CV-93-405E-EJE U.S.D.C.D.I., Public Law 94-564, Senate report 94-1148 pg. 5967, Reorganization Plan No. 26, Public Law 102-391).        The IMF (International Monetary Fund) is an agency of the U.N.     (Black's Law Dictionary 6th Ed. page 816)        The United States has NOT had a Treasury since 1921 (41 Stat. Ch 214 page 654)        The U.S. Treasury is now the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Presidential Documents Volume 24-No. 4 page 113, 22 U.S.C. 285-2887)        The United States does not have any employees because there is no longer a United States! No more reorganizations. After over 200 years of bankruptcy it is finally over. (Executive Order 12803)        The FCC, CIA, FBI, NASA and all of the other alphabet gangs were never  part of the U.S. government, even though the "U.S. Government" held stock in the agencies. (U.S. v Strang, 254 US491 Lewis v. US, 680 F.2nd, 1239)        Social Security Numbers are issued by the U.N. through the IMF (International Monetary Fund). The application for a Social Security Number is the SS5 Form. The Department of the Treasury (IMF) issues the SS5 forms and not the Social Security Administration. The new SS5 forms do not state who publishes them while the old form states they are "Department of the Treasury". (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111 Subpart B. 422.103 (b))        There are NO Judicial Courts in America and have not been since 1789. Judges do not enforce Statutes and Codes. Executive Administrators enforce Statutes and Codes. (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428, 1 Stat 138-178)        There have NOT been any judges in America since 1789. There have just been administrators.  (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428 1 Stat. 138-178)        According to GATT (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) you MUST have a Social Security number. (House Report (103-826)        New York City is defined in Federal Regulations as the United Nations. Rudolph Guiliani stated on C-Span that "New York City is the capital of the World." For once, he told the truth. (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111, subpart B 44.103 (b) (2) (2) )        Social Security is not insurance or a contract, nor is there a Trust Fund.  (Helvering v. Davis 301 US 619 Steward Co. v. Davis 301 US 548)        Your Social Security check comes directly from the IMF (International Monetary Fund), which is an agency of the United Nations. (It says "U.S. Department of Treasury" at the top left corner, which again is part of the U.N. as pointed out above)        You own NO property!! Slaves can't own property. Read carefully the Deed to the property you think is yours.  You are listed as a TENANT. (Senate Document 43, 73rd Congress 1st Session)        The most powerful court in America is NOT the United States Supreme court, but rather the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. (42 PA. C.S.A. 502)        The King of England financially backed both sides of the American Revolutionary War..   (Treaty of Versailles-July 16, 1782 Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80)        You CANNOT use the U.S. Constitution to defend yourself because you are NOT a party to it!  The U.S. Constitution applies to the CORPORATION OF THE UNITED STATES, a privately owned and operated corporation (headquartered out of Washington, DC) much like IBM (International Business Machines, Microsoft, et al) and NOT to the people of the sovereign Republic of the united States of America.  (Padelford Fay & Co. v The Mayor and Alderman of the City of Savannah 14 Georgia 438, 520)        America is a British Colony.  The United States is a corporation, not a land mass and it existed before the Revolutionary War and the British Troops did not leave until 1796 (Republica v. Sweers 1 Dallas 43, Treaty of Commerce 8 Stat 116, Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80, IRS Publication 6209, Articles of Association October 20, 1774)        Britain is owned by the Vatican. (Treaty of 1213)        The Pope can abolish any law in the United States (Elements of Ecclesiastical Law Vol. 1, 53-54)        A 1040 Form is for tribute paid to Britain (IRS Publication 6209)        The Pope claims to own the entire planet through the laws of conquest and discovery.  (Papal Bulls of 1495 & 1493)        The Pope has ordered the genocide and enslavement of millions of people.(Papal Bulls of 1455 & 1493)        The Pope's laws are obligatory on everyone.  (Bened. XIV., De Syn. Dioec, lib, ix, c. vii, n. 4. Prati, 1844 Syllabus Prop 28, 29, 44)        We are slaves and own absolutely nothing, NOT even what we think are our children.  (Tillman vs. Roberts 108 So. 62, Van Koten vs. Van Koten 154 N.E. 146, Senate Document 438 73rd Congress 1st Session, Wynehammer v. People 13 N.Y. REP 378, 481)        Military dictator George Washington divided up the States (Estates) in to Districts  (Messages and papers of the Presidents Volume 1 page 99 1828 Dictionary of Estate)      "The People" does NOT include you and me. (Barron vs. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore 32 U.S. 243)       It is NOT the duty of the police to protect you. Their job is to protect THE CORPORATION and arrest code breakers. (SAPP vs. Tallahassee, 348 So. 2nd. 363, REiff vs. City of Phila. 477 F. 1262, Lynch vs. NC Dept. of Justice 376 S.E. 2nd. 247)      Every thing in the "United States" is up for sale: bridges, roads, water, schools, hospitals, prisons, airports, etc, etc… Did anybody take time to check who bought Klamath Lake?? (Executive Order 12803)        "We are human capital" (Executive Order 13037)  The world cabal makes money off of the use of your signatures on mortgages, car loans, credit cards, your social security number, etc.         The U.N. – United Nations – has financed the operations of the United States government (the corporation of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) for over 50 years (U.S. Department of Treasury is part of the U.N. see above) and now owns every man, woman and child in America.       The U.N. also holds all of the land of America in Fee Simple.   The good news is we don't have to fulfill "our" fictitious obligations. You can discharge a fictitious obligation with another's fictitious obligation.       Source: Stop The Pirates: These documents are NOT secret! They ARE a matter of Public Record.     

"Most people follow the story. I look for what the story left behind." Do you have a psychopath in your life? The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 How they flip sex with hormones:  Hormones Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Tune in: Podcast Links – Psychopath In Your Life Download Pods here - one click and pods load to any device fully titled and ready to listen to or archive:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life Is the Killer inside your home? Iran's Nuclear Program: Forgotten U.S. and Israeli Connection.  Iran has ONE Nuclear Reactor -USA has 94 SMART Meters & Electricity – Bioterrorism You will need to do a visual search for Transformers. AntennaSearch – Search for Cell Towers & Antennas    

"The further a society drifts from the truth, the more it will hate those who speak it." I don't say this because I want this to happen to anyone else. I hope it doesn't. But at some point, all of us have to ask ourselves a simple question: Where is the line? Is sitting on the couch and assuming someone else will deal with these issues really going to work? Or does there comes a point when each of us has to start paying closer attention to what's happening around us? Sequence of events: 10:44 AM GMT – Verification code requested from Stuhr, Germany 4 hours 35 minutes later – Verification code requested from Brussels, Belgium 1 minute later – Verification code requested from Amsterdam, Netherlands 1 minute later – Second verification code requested from Amsterdam, Netherlands Same minute – New email address ([email protected]) added to my LinkedIn account from Amsterdam, Netherlands  1 minute later – New device sign-in from Montreal, Quebec, Canada   On July 17, I documented a series of unusual LinkedIn security alerts reporting login attempts and verification requests from Stuhr, Germany, Brussels, Belgium, Montreal, Canada, and Amsterdam, Netherlands. The activity eventually included the addition of an unauthorized Hotmail email address to my LinkedIn account. In this episode, I walk through the complete timeline, explain what LinkedIn reported, and examine the significance of each reported location. The investigation explores publicly available information about Bremen and Stuhr, Germany; NATO and the European Union in Brussels; Montreal's financial and telecommunications infrastructure; Amsterdam's internet exchange network (AMS-IX); and the broader role these cities play in international transportation, communications, finance, government, and technology. I also discuss why these locations caught my attention while documenting the reported login attempts. The episode also explains how this investigation interrupted my research into Walter Rodney and follows my earlier work on the murder of Maltese journalist Daphne Caruana Galizia. My previous research examined international trade routes, offshore financial structures, cross-border money flows, taxation, private equity, online gambling, technology companies, and corporate networks operating across multiple jurisdictions. Those subjects provide the background that led me to examine the locations reported in the LinkedIn notifications. Supporting materials include the complete timeline of LinkedIn security notifications, background research on Stuhr, Bremen, Brussels, Montreal, and Amsterdam, information on NATO, the European Union, AMS-IX, Donald Ewen Cameron and the Allan Memorial Institute, Germany's aerospace and defense industry, and references to earlier podcast episodes discussing international finance, trade routes, and the movement of money across borders. What Do Netflix, Pornhub, Gaming Giants, Gambling Sites, Wall Street & Private Equity Have in Common? Moving Billions Across Borders to Cheat Billions in Tax—Khazar Trade Routes to the Knights of Malta & the Car Bomb Murder of Daphne Caruana Galizia. How NATO Created Tests for Psychopaths — From Hervey Cleckley's Mask of Sanity to Robert Hare's Psychopathy Checklist, creating diagnostic confusion -Trauma Victims get Misdiagnosed as Psychopaths. - Psychopath In Your Life with Dianne Emerson | Podcast on Spotify Music:  Buffalo Springfield - For What It's Worth (Official Audio)   🚨BANKS Were Just Quietly Bailed-Out | Right Now, BY YOU If you are disabled or on SS and elderly, they cannot force you to repay credit cards.  Attorney Explains Laws That Help Struggling Seniors Tech Bros having a cat fight "The people that got harmed the most are those who trusted Sam Altman the most.":  Oracle's credit rating drops to one level above junk | Ed Zitron Stealing is in their Gypsy blood:  The Bill Gates' Daughter $43 Million Scandal NOBODY Is Talking About | Julian Dorey The Tech bros are behind cameras on every camera, no reason to climb any poles a laser pointer takes out cameras, then they have to come out and replace them, wear them down:  Investigating Flock: America's Mass Surveillance Company We Hacked Flock Safety Cameras in under 30 Seconds. 🫥 He Hacked Flock Cameras. What He Found Was Worse Than Expected Cities Arming Garbage Trucks with AI Cameras to Scan Houses Cheap vs Premium Walkie Talkies! Rapid Radios EXPOSED! Does this Long Range Walkie Talkie REALLY Work without Cell Service? Top 3 Best Security Cameras Without Wi-Fi DIY Window Bar Installation Tutorial Quick & Easy NO WELDING! Increase Home Security [Window Bars] Window bars for apartments: what to know before buying 🏢 Do you have a psychopath in your life?  The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Tune in: Podcast Links – Psychopath In Your Life TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life   Sequence Date & Time Elapsed Event Location 1 July 17 – 10:44 AM GMT — Verification code requested Stuhr, Germany 2 July 17 – 3:19 PM GMT 4 hr 35 min later Verification code requested Brussels, Belgium 3 July 17 – 3:20 PM GMT (5:20 PM Amsterdam) 1 min later Verification code requested Amsterdam, Netherlands 4 July 17 – 3:21 PM GMT (5:21 PM Amsterdam) 1 min Verification code requested Amsterdam, Netherlands 5 July 17 – 3:21 PM GMT (5:21 PM Amsterdam) Same minute Email address added ([email protected]) Amsterdam, Netherlands 6 July 17 – 3:22 PM GMT 1 min later New device sign-in Montreal, Quebec, Canada LinkedIn Unauthorized Access Timeline July 17, 2026 On July 17, 2026, I began receiving a series of LinkedIn security notifications that were unlike anything I had experienced before. At first, I ignored the initial verification request because most of us have received occasional security alerts. However, additional notifications continued to arrive throughout the day, eventually creating a timeline that I thought was worth documenting. The reported locations were not all in one country. Instead, the notifications referenced Germany, Belgium, Canada and the Netherlands before an unfamiliar email address was ultimately added to my LinkedIn account. Rather than simply looking at the city names, I decided to research each reported location to better understand what was located there and why those areas might be significant. The Timeline The first notification arrived at 10:44 GMT. LinkedIn sent a verification code and reported the approximate location as Stuhr, Germany, a municipality located just southwest of Bremen. A few hours later, at 3:19 GMT, another verification request arrived. This time the reported location was Brussels, Belgium. Only three minutes later, at 3:22 GMT, LinkedIn notified me that there had been a sign-in attempt from a new device. The approximate location for that notification was Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Later that same day, I received two additional verification requests only one minute apart. Both listed the approximate location as Amsterdam, Netherlands. The final notification was different. Instead of another verification request, LinkedIn informed me that an unfamiliar email address had been added to my account. Email added: [email protected] That became the first actual identifier associated with the incident. Stuhr and Bremen, Germany Because I had never heard of Stuhr, I started researching the area. Stuhr is immediately southwest of Bremen in the German state of Lower Saxony. While Stuhr itself is a relatively small municipality, Bremen is an important transportation, logistics and aerospace center. The region includes Bremen Airport, major shipping routes through Bremerhaven and the A1 Autobahn, one of Germany's primary transportation corridors connecting Scandinavia with central Europe. Bremen is also home to Airbus Defense & Space operations, Rheinmetall Defense Electronics and the satellite company OHB, one of Europe's leading space technology companies. Nearby Bremen also contains the Regional Territorial Command Bremen, the Bundeswehr's military liaison for the State of Bremen. Germany has also expanded Bremen's role in maritime and space defense, making the region increasingly important to Germany's defense infrastructure. Brussels, Belgium The second reported location was Brussels. Brussels is widely recognized as the political headquarters of NATO and the working center of the European Union. It is also home to the Belgian federal government, numerous foreign embassies, permanent NATO delegations, European Union representations, United Nations liaison offices and many international organizations. Because of this concentration of governmental, diplomatic and military institutions, Brussels is one of the world's principal international political centers. Montreal, Quebec, Canada The third reported location was Montreal. Montreal is one of Canada's largest financial, telecommunications and technology centers. It is also home to McGill University and the Allan Memorial Institute, where Dr. Donald Ewen Cameron conducted the CIA-funded MKUltra experiments. Beyond that history, Montreal remains one of Canada's major communications and financial hubs, containing significant telecommunications infrastructure and numerous federal government offices. Amsterdam, Netherlands The final reported location appeared twice within one minute. Amsterdam is one of Europe's most important internet infrastructure centers. It is home to AMS-IX, one of the world's largest internet exchanges, along with major international data centers, multinational hosting providers and communications networks that support internet traffic throughout Europe. A Common Characteristic Although these four locations are geographically separated, they share one common characteristic. Each location is an internationally significant center connected with transportation, communications, finance, government, defense or technology. That observation led me to spend additional time researching each location. The Email Address The final notification stated that the following email address had been added to my LinkedIn account: [email protected] Unlike the reported locations, this was an actual account identifier. I also noticed that it was a Hotmail account. Hotmail was one of the dominant email services during the early years of the public internet in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Research Background My interest in these locations did not begin with the LinkedIn notifications. For many years I have researched international trade routes, financial networks and the movement of money across borders. While researching the murder of Daphne Caruana Galizia in Malta, I spent considerable time examining financial networks, offshore structures and international money flows. During that research, places such as Amsterdam, Brussels, Malta, London, Luxembourg and Dublin appeared repeatedly in discussions involving European finance, regulation, communications infrastructure and corporate structures. I had no inside knowledge of exactly what Daphne Caruana Galizia was investigating. I simply followed financial routes that appeared significant during my own research to see where they led. When the LinkedIn notifications began arriving from several international hubs, I documented each one and researched the locations just as I have done throughout my previous investigations.

"After all, the victor will not be asked whether he told the truth or not." — Adolf Hitler, remarks to German military commanders on August 22, 1939, as quoted from the Nuremberg documentary record by Robert H. Jackson. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:98b78074-65ad-43ad-b499-aef645f8ecfb-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:98b78074-65ad-43ad-b499-aef645f8ecfb-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> The history of Nuremberg stretches back nearly a thousand years, but the city became forever linked to Nazi Germany after Adolf Hitler transformed it into the symbolic center of the Nazi Party. Between 1927 and 1938, the massive Nuremberg Rallies showcased military spectacle, propaganda, and the consolidation of power, while the 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped German Jews of their citizenship and laid the legal foundation for racial persecution. In this episode, we trace Nuremberg's evolution from a medieval imperial city to the stage for both Nazi pageantry and, after World War II, the world's most famous war crimes trials. The Nuremberg Trials (1945–1949) remain among the most significant and controversial legal proceedings in modern history. This episode explores the International Military Tribunal and the subsequent Nuremberg Trials, examining the prosecution of Nazi political leaders, military commanders, physicians, judges, industrialists, and the executives of IG Farben. We explain why the Allies selected Nuremberg as the trial venue, how the proceedings introduced new concepts into international law, and how the judgments influenced later war crimes tribunals, crimes against humanity, genocide prosecutions, and international criminal justice. The discussion also examines the enduring controversies surrounding the trials, including documented allegations of coercive interrogations, debates over the reliability of confessions, claims of "victor's justice," and legal arguments involving aggressive war, crimes against humanity, conspiracy charges, and ex post facto law. Rather than accepting any single narrative, we distinguish established historical evidence from disputed claims and revisionist interpretations while exploring why these debates continue to shape public understanding of World War II, the Holocaust, international tribunals, and the limits of justice after war. The story does not end in 1949. We follow the legacy of the Nuremberg Trials through the breakup of IG Farben into Bayer, BASF, and Hoechst, examine how questions of corporate responsibility evolved during the Cold War, and discuss Bayer's later acquisition of Monsanto. From Nazi propaganda and industrial power to medicine, law, politics, and multinational corporations, this episode explores how decisions made in Nuremberg continue to influence legal systems, corporate accountability, historical memory, and global debates nearly eighty years later, Clip:   What Happened at the Nuremberg Trials? | History Music:  Leonard Cohen - Everybody Knows (Official Audio) TAYLOR SWIFT & TRAVIS KELCE'S SECRETIVE SATANIC ILLUMINATI WEDDING IN NYC ON 33RD STREET! 1961 MOVIE: Judgment At Nuremberg LIES YOUR TEACHER TAUGHT YOU: The Farce of Nuremberg Trials The Nuremberg trials from 1945 to 1949 and the "confessions" under torture - Front National Suisse The Legally-Flawed Nuremberg "War Crimes Trials" Did Not "Prove" the Holocaust Les Problèmes de la Baltique: Finland in the Eye of the Storm. Erkki Hautamäki's book Freemasonry, Bolshevism and Dirty Little Secrets You Weren't Supposed to Know: The Stalin-Churchill Pact | Justice for Germans Erkki Hautamäki - Wikipedia Goebbels Accuses Churchill of Lying Joseph Goebbels: 1933-1945 How a Psychiatrist at Nuremberg Got Inside the Nazi Mind | HISTORY The Secret Art Bunker of Nuremberg Aspirin Contributed to Mortalities of 1918-1919 Spanish Influenza, and More | Winter Watch The Tokyo Trial Explained How they use hormones to flip sex:  Hormones  Do you have a psychopath in your life?  The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Download Pods here:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-7" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-7" data-testid= "conversation-turn-54" data-turn="assistant"> Harald Quandt is one of those remarkable historical figures whose life intersects with several major stories at once: the Nazi leadership, the Battle of Crete, Monte Cassino, postwar German industry, and the modern BMW fortune. 1921 Harald Quandt is born. His father is Günther Quandt, one of Germany's wealthiest industrialists. His mother is Magda Quandt. 1929 His parents divorce. Magda remains part of Berlin's wealthy social circles. 1931 Magda marries Joseph Goebbels. Harald suddenly becomes the stepson of one of Hitler's closest associates. 1933 Hitler comes to power. Harald now grows up at the center of the Nazi elite. He spends time with: Adolf Hitler. Joseph Goebbels. Hermann Göring. Other senior Nazi leaders. Unlike many children, he personally knew the people running the Third Reich. 1932–1940 Magda and Goebbels have six children together. Harald becomes their older half-brother. The family is frequently photographed as the "ideal Nazi family." Hitler reportedly had a warm relationship with the Goebbels children. 1939 Harald volunteers for military service. Despite his family connections, he receives no exemption. He joins the elite Luftwaffe paratroopers (Fallschirmjäger). 1941 He fights in the invasion of Crete. The battle becomes one of the bloodiest airborne operations of the war. Harald survives and receives decorations for bravery. 1941–1943 He serves on the Eastern Front. Later he serves in Italy. By now he is a commissioned officer. 1944 Harald fights at the Battle of Monte Cassino. The German Fallschirmjäger become famous for their stubborn defense. He is seriously wounded. British forces capture him. He is sent first to hospital, then to a prisoner-of-war camp near Benghazi, Libya. April 1945 While Harald is in captivity, Berlin collapses. His mother, Magda, writes him what amounts to a farewell letter. She explains she sees no future without National Socialism. The letter is one of the most haunting surviving personal documents from Hitler's bunker. May 1, 1945 Magda poisons all six of Harald's younger half-siblings. Joseph and Magda Goebbels then kill themselves. Harald becomes the only surviving child of Magda Goebbels. 1947 Released from British captivity. He returns to Germany. Instead of entering politics, he joins the family businesses founded by his father. 1954 Günther Quandt dies. Harald and his half-brother Herbert inherit enormous industrial holdings. These include major interests connected with what became BMW and other industrial firms. 1950s–1960s The Quandt family becomes one of the richest industrial dynasties in West Germany. Harald generally avoids public political discussion. Unlike Albert Speer or others, he writes no major memoir. 1960 Harald's half-brother Herbert Quandt plays a decisive role in rescuing BMW from financial collapse by increasing the family's investment. Without Herbert's intervention, many historians believe BMW might have been absorbed by another company. 1967 Harald dies in a private airplane crash in Italy. He is only 45 years old. After 1967 His daughters inherit substantial wealth. The broader Quandt family fortune continues growing through BMW and other investments. 2007 A German television documentary draws renewed attention to the family's wartime history. It examines the use of forced labor in Quandt factories during World War II. 2011 An independent historical investigation commissioned by the family concludes that Quandt companies used more than 50,000 forced laborers during the war and that the family's wartime activities were more deeply intertwined with the Nazi system than had previously been acknowledged. What makes Harald historically unique? He occupies an unusual position in history. He was: The biological son of one of Germany's richest industrialists. The stepson of Joseph Goebbels. Personally acquainted with Hitler. An officer in an elite combat formation rather than a political official. A British prisoner of war when Berlin fell. The only surviving child of Magda Goebbels. Heir to one of Germany's largest postwar industrial fortunes. Harald never chose to become Joseph Goebbels' stepson. He entered that world at age ten when his mother remarried. He then lived through the collapse of the regime, lost his mother and six half-siblings in a single day, spent years as a POW, and returned to inherit an industrial empire whose wartime legacy remains the subject of historical scrutiny. Few individual biographies intersect with so many of the defining themes of twentieth-century German history. Günther Quandt built and expanded the industrial empire. Herbert Quandt inherited part of it and rescued BMW. Harald Quandt inherited the other major branch while carrying the extraordinary distinction of being Joseph Goebbels' stepson. The startling part is that Harald left a British prisoner-of-war camp in 1947, returned to Germany, and within several years became one of the richest men in the country because his biological father's industrial empire had survived the war and denazification. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-50" data-turn="assistant"> Italy did have trials, but it never had a single international tribunal like Nuremberg or Tokyo. Most large-scale prosecutions simply never happened. Your transcript lays out the reasons quite well. The major reasons were: Italy switched sides before the war ended. This is probably the biggest reason. Mussolini was overthrown in July 1943. Italy surrendered to the Allies in September 1943. The new Italian government declared war on Germany. Italian troops fought alongside the Allies for the remainder of the war. That allowed postwar Italy to argue: "Yes, we were fascist, but we also helped defeat fascism." That was an argument Germany and Japan could not make. Italy became both defendant and victim. After September 1943: Germany occupied northern Italy. Italians fought Italians in a civil war. German troops committed atrocities inside Italy. Italian resistance groups fought the Germans. So Italy could say: "We committed crimes, but we also suffered under Nazi occupation." That complicated any attempt to stage one giant international trial. Mussolini was already dead. On April 28, 1945: Mussolini was captured. He was executed by Italian partisans. Several senior Fascist officials were executed with him. Italy later argued that much of the principal leadership had already been punished by Italians themselves. The Cold War intervened—again. By 1947: The Western Allies were increasingly worried about: Soviet influence. The powerful Italian Communist Party. Keeping Italy in the Western camp. Britain and the United States lost interest in prosecutions. Yugoslavia wanted hundreds of Italian officers extradited. Ethiopia wanted Italian commanders tried for poison gas, massacres, and colonial atrocities. Instead: Britain slowed things down. The U.S. withdrew support. Extraditions largely failed. Many suspects simply remained in Italy. Italy declared a broad amnesty. In 1946, Justice Minister Palmiro Togliatti issued a sweeping amnesty. Although intended to exclude the worst crimes, in practice it was interpreted broadly. Out of approximately 218,000 cases reviewed during the defascistization process, only 738 resulted in convictions. Some officials were politically inconvenient to prosecute. One striking example in your transcript is General Mario Roatta. Yugoslavia wanted him tried. Instead, he escaped with assistance from Italian police and British intelligence, eventually living freely in Spain before returning to Italy. The larger pattern One thing you've probably noticed over the past few days is that the same theme keeps appearing: Germany: extensive trials initially, then rapid reintegration as the Cold War intensified. Japan: selective prosecutions, immunity for Unit 731 personnel, preservation of the emperor, alliance with the United States. Italy: limited prosecutions, broad amnesties, reluctance to extradite suspects, reconciliation prioritized over extensive trials. The specific circumstances differed, but by roughly 1947–1948, Western governments increasingly emphasized rebuilding allies and containing Soviet influence over pursuing every alleged war criminal. That shift is well documented, even though historians continue to debate whether it was justified or whether accountability should have remained the higher priority. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:6561b46e-1ff2-4ed0-b5ab-b19fbbe42131-8" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:6561b46e-1ff2-4ed0-b5ab-b19fbbe42131-8" data-testid= "conversation-turn-18" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-40" data-turn="assistant"> Ancient and Medieval Origins The exact origin is uncertain. Soft, brimless caps resembling the fez were worn around the Mediterranean and North Africa for centuries. The city of Fez (Fès), Morocco, became associated with the hat because of its production of the red dye used to color felt hats, although historians debate whether the hat itself originated there. 1400s–1700s Similar brimless felt caps were common throughout: Morocco Algeria Tunisia Egypt The Balkans Parts of the Ottoman Empire At this stage it was simply regional headwear. 1826 A turning point. Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissaries and modernized the Ottoman military. He ordered the fez to replace turbans as standard military and civil-service dress. Why? Easier to manufacture. Symbolized modernization. Allowed Muslims to touch their forehead to the ground during prayer because it had no brim. Created a uniform appearance across the empire. This is when the fez became internationally recognized. 1830s–1870s The fez spread across the Ottoman Empire. It was worn by: Soldiers Police Judges Bureaucrats Postal workers Government officials Merchants For many people, wearing a fez meant loyalty to the Ottoman state. Late 1800s European colonial officers and travelers frequently encountered the fez throughout: Turkey Egypt Bosnia Syria Lebanon Palestine Libya Tunisia It became one of the visual symbols of the Ottoman world. 1878–1918 Bosnia came under Austro-Hungarian rule. The Austrians kept Bosnian Muslim regiments wearing fezzes because they respected local religious traditions. Those Bosnian regiments became famous throughout Europe. This explains the Waffen-SS connection decades later. 1914–1918 (World War I) Fezzes were still worn by: Ottoman Army units. Bosnian Muslim regiments. Many civilians throughout the Middle East. 1925 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk banned the fez in Turkey under the Hat Law. He regarded it as a symbol of the old Ottoman Empire and wanted Western-style hats instead. The ban dramatically reduced everyday use in Turkey. 1930s–1945 The Nazis recruited Bosnian Muslims into the: 13th Waffen Mountain Division SS "Handschar." Those soldiers wore the traditional fez with SS insignia. It looked strange because the SS is usually associated with black peaked caps. Historically, however, Himmler was willing to preserve traditional dress when recruiting foreign units. 1870s–Present (Shriners) The Shriners International adopted the fez in the late nineteenth century. Why? The organization borrowed Middle Eastern imagery because its rituals and symbolism were inspired by romanticized ideas of Arabia, North Africa, and the Ottoman world—not because it had any historical connection to those governments. The fez became their most recognizable symbol. It usually bears: The scimitar. Crescent. Sphinx. Chapter name. Today The fez is still worn: By Shriners. During some ceremonial military occasions in the Balkans. In parts of Morocco. During cultural festivals throughout North Africa. By a few traditional religious groups. Who has worn the fez? Ottoman Sultans. Ottoman Army officers and soldiers. Ottoman police. Ottoman judges. Civil servants. Bosnian Muslim regiments under Austria-Hungary. Ottoman officials throughout the Middle East. 13th Waffen-SS Handschar Division. Shriners. Various North African civilians. Some Sufi religious orders. One interesting historical irony is that the fez has represented very different things depending on the era: In Morocco, it reflected regional tradition. In the Ottoman Empire, it symbolized modernization and state service. In Austria-Hungary, it identified Bosnian Muslim regiments. In the Waffen-SS, it marked a foreign volunteer formation. Among the Shriners, it became a ceremonial emblem inspired by an imagined "Oriental" aesthetic. It is one of those rare pieces of clothing that has crossed empires, religions, military organizations, and fraternal societies while retaining its instantly recognizable shape. Fez Ottoman officials. Military officers. Judges. Police. Bosnian regiments. Shriners. Later, the Handschar SS division. Top hat Bankers. Industrialists. Politicians. Diplomats. Wealthy businessmen. Freemasons in some ceremonial settings. Victorian and Edwardian upper classes.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-44" data-turn="assistant"> One irony is that the Nazis persecuted the Roma under racial laws while simultaneously recruiting Bosnian Muslim SS troops who wore fezzes. So during World War II you could have: Roma civilians in the Balkans wearing fezzes as traditional local dress. Bosnian Muslim Waffen-SS soldiers wearing fezzes with SS insignia. The same style of hat had completely different meanings depending on who was wearing it. So if you're researching symbolism, I would be cautious about assigning a single meaning to the fez. Historically it has been worn by: Ottoman officials. Muslim civilians. Christians in some Balkan regions. Jewish merchants in Ottoman cities. Roma in Ottoman territories. Bosnian regiments of Austria-Hungary. The Handschar SS Division. Shriners. That's one reason historians generally treat it as regional and cultural headwear, whose meaning changed depending on the time, place, and wearer, rather than as the emblem of one particular people or organization. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-46" data-turn="assistant"> The Roma were a mobile people whose communities spread from the Indian subcontinent into the Byzantine Empire, the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire, Central Europe, and eventually Western Europe. Because they often adopted aspects of local dress while retaining elements of their own culture, they became one of the groups through which clothing styles could be seen across multiple regions. For example: In Ottoman Bosnia, a Roma blacksmith might wear a fez because local Bosnian Muslims did. In Bulgaria, Roma musicians often wore the same headwear as other local men. In parts of Turkey, Roma communities also wore fezzes. By contrast, in Spain, England, or France, Roma communities generally dressed more like the surrounding populations and did not typically wear fezzes. One thing that makes the Balkans fascinating is how mixed the population was. In the same town you might have: Bosnian Muslims wearing fezzes. Orthodox Serbs. Catholic Croats. Sephardic Jews. Ashkenazi Jews. Roma families. Ottoman officials. Austro-Hungarian administrators (after 1878). "How did one piece of headwear become accepted by so many different peoples across the Ottoman world?" The fez crossed ethnic, linguistic, and even religious boundaries. It was worn by Muslims, Christians, Jews, and some Roma communities. Later it appeared on Austrian Bosnian regiments, the Handschar SS division, and eventually the Shriners in the United States. That makes the fez less a symbol of one people than a symbol of a shared cultural sphere that stretched from North Africa through the eastern Mediterranean and deep into the Balkans. That's one reason it shows up in such unexpected places when you start following its history. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-4" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a50f59c-b080-83e8-8732-2055072492e6-4" data-testid= "conversation-turn-48" data-turn="assistant"> Today, many Americans associate Islam primarily with the Middle East or with terrorism because of the events of the last few decades. That was not always the dominant public perception. Here's the timeline. 1700s–1800s Most Americans had very little direct contact with Muslims. Islam was known largely through: The Ottoman Empire. North African Barbary states. Biblical history. Travel literature. The biggest early American interaction came during the Barbary States conflicts (1801–1805 and 1815), when the young United States fought piracy in the Mediterranean. Late 1800s America developed a fascination with what people called "the Orient." You saw: Shriners wearing fezzes. "Arabian Nights" themes. Turkish smoking rooms. Belly dancing at world fairs. Moorish architecture. Ottoman-inspired decorations. Muslim imagery was often viewed as exotic or romantic rather than threatening. 1870s–1920s This is probably the era you're noticing. Many American fraternal organizations adopted Middle Eastern imagery. Examples: Shriners International Moorish Revival architecture. Crescent symbols. Fezzes. Arabic-inspired names. Camel imagery. These groups were not Islamic organizations. They borrowed symbols because Americans found the Ottoman and Arab world mysterious and fashionable. 1920s–1945 The Middle East was still not a major focus of American public life. Attention centered much more on: Europe. Japan. The Great Depression. World War II. 1948–1970s Several events gradually increased attention to the Middle East: Creation of Israel. Arab-Israeli wars. Oil discoveries. OPEC. The 1973 oil embargo. Americans increasingly associated the region with geopolitics rather than romance. 1979 A major turning point. The Iranian Revolution and the U.S. embassy hostage crisis dominated television for over a year. For many Americans, this was their first sustained exposure to modern political Islam. 1980s Additional events reinforced that shift: Lebanon. Beirut barracks bombing. Airline hijackings. Libya. Palestinian terrorism. 1990s The perception hardened further. Events included: 1993 World Trade Center bombing. East Africa embassy bombings. USS Cole attack. September 11, 2001 This was by far the largest turning point. After the attacks, Islam became strongly associated in the American public mind with terrorism, security, Afghanistan, Iraq, and the broader "War on Terror." That doesn't mean Americans viewed all Muslims that way, but public discussion changed dramatically. Why are there so many Islamic-looking symbols in America? Because many of them arrived before Islam was widely viewed through a security lens. The Shriners adopted the fez in 1872. Moorish Revival buildings were fashionable. Arabian Nights stories were enormously popular. None of these were seen as controversial. So the same fez that looked perfectly ordinary on a Shriner in 1920 might today surprise people who associate it primarily with the Ottoman Empire or Islam. In many ways, the symbolism stayed the same, but its cultural meaning changed because the public's perception of Islam changed over the twentieth century, especially after 1979 and even more after 2001. That's why Americans today often notice symbols that earlier generations simply regarded as exotic, decorative, or fraternal rather than politically or religiously significant. The Marshall Plan Myth  The 50th anniversary of the Marshall Plan provided another occasion for the media to celebrate the government's good works. The U.S.'s headlong plunge into global welfarism (nearly $100 billion in current dollars), they said, saved European economies after the Second World War. One reporter, Garrick Utley of NBC, even theorized that Marshall aid explains why East Germany was poor and West Germany rich.   As economist Tyler Cowen has noted, the countries that received the most Marshall Plan money (allies Britain, Sweden, and Greece) grew the slowest between 1947 and 1955, while those that received the least money (axis powers Germany, Austria, and Italy) grew the most. In terms of post-war prosperity, then, it eventually paid to be a political enemy of the U.S. instead of a "beneficiary" of international charity.   But this truth is only news if you think that the Marshall Plan was genuinely intended to help foreign countries. But as with all government programs, it pays returns to look beneath the surface. So what exactly was the point of the Marshall Plan, named for General George Marshall? It's been well-described in the works of historians William Appleman Williams, Gabriel Kolko, Stephen Ambrose, and Alan Milward.   Marshall himself played the role of a patsy, delivering prepackaged speeches written by the players behind the plan. His original pitch, given at Harvard, was for money to end "hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos." But the real upshot of the Marshall Plan was a political maneuver to loot American taxpayers to keep influential American corporations on the government dole. The Plan's legacy was the egregious and perpetual use of foreign aid for domestic political and economic purposes.   After the war ended, Harry Truman's popularity in the polls began to plummet, as did the prestige of government generally. The American people had made huge sacrifices to fight the war and now wanted curbs in government, which had been administering a centrally planned economy. Most of all, they wanted the foreign policy recommended by George Washington and Thomas Jefferson: trade with all, entanglements with none.   In the mainstream of thinking was Republican Senator Robert Taft, a hero of all free-market activists at the time. He demanded tax cuts, spending cuts, and an end to "constantly increasing interference with family life and with business by autocratic government bureaus and autocratic labor leaders." The Republican party swept midterm elections in 1946, taking back the Congress on a hard-core, anti-big government platform.   Truman had to do something big and he knew it. As Charles Mee reports, he needed "some large program that would let him recapture the initiative, something big enough to enable him to gather in all the traditional factions of the Democratic Party and also some middle-of-the-road Republicans, and at the same time, something that would hamper the Republican phalanx," and establish him as a world leader.   The issue was right before him: foreign aid, funneled through the corporate establishment and cloaked in the rhetoric of opposition to foreign (but not domestic) communism. Cynically, he would make good use of Russia, which only the day before had been our gallant ally in the war, and transform it into a monster that had to be destroyed. By stealing the Republican's anti-socialist rhetoric, Truman hoped to frazzle his opponents and make himself a hero on the world stage.   Truman had plenty of co-conspirators, men who have gone down in history as the architects of the original New World Order. Fabled establishmentarians Averell Harriman and Charles Kindleberger were central figures. But it was Dean Acheson, undersecretary of state and the most menacing statist of the immediate post-war era, who concocted the plan to make the wartime empire permanent. Acheson persuaded Navy secretary James Forrestal and domestic fixer Clark Clifford to show Truman how he could elevate a political scam like foreign aid into a mighty ideological struggle on the global stage.   A little-known business group, founded in 1942 and called the Committee for Economic Development, was elevated into a think tank for a new international order—the economic counterpart to the Council on Foreign Relations. The Committee's founders were the heads of the top steel, automotive, and electric industries who had benefited from the New Deal's corporatist statism. Its membership overlapped with the farther left National Planning Association, which was unabashedly national socialist in ideological orientation.   These groups understood that they owed their profit margins to government subsidies provided by the New Deal and wartime production subsidies. Faced with post-war peace, they feared a future in which they would be forced to compete on a free-market basis. Their personal and institutional security was at stake, so they got busy dreaming up strategies to sustain a profitable statism in a peacetime economy.   Corporate economic interests, then, overlapped with Truman's political interests, and an unholy alliance between business and government was born. They would use Europe's miseries to line their own pockets in the name of "rebuilding" and providing "security" against trumped-up threats to American security.   The test case came in 1947 with aid to Greece, where a communist party was making electoral advances. Truman saw the main chance, and demanded $400 million in foreign aid, which Congress approved as a swipe against Russia. Just as the money was being channeled to special-interest groups, however, members of Congress learned that the "Russian connection" to the Greek communist party had been phonied up. As it turned out, Greece, like every European country, just wanted the cash.   Even so, the political success of the Truman doctrine of global giveaways had been demonstrated, and the script for billions in future giveaways had been written. Over the next five years, "Marshall money" would corrupt nearly every Christian democratic party in Europe, turning them into carbon copies of the U.S. Democratic party. Those political parties in turn worked to create monstrous welfare states and regulatory controls that continue to hinder European economic growth today.   On the heels of the success in Greece, Dean Acheson formed an ad hoc committee to find "situations elsewhere in the world" that "may require analogous, technical, and military aid on our part." With no effort, the ad hoc committee was able to classify most of Europe as in need of economic aid. The committee found shortages of just about everything, and, in particular, dollars to buy goods from corporate America. A mythical "dollar shortage" (as if trade is only possible with a world awash in paper) was the crisis of the moment.   But beneath the surface, the true objective was the internationalization of the New Deal, a bureaucrat's dream. As Julius Krug, secretary of the interior, said in his memoirs, the Marshall Plan, "essential to our own continued productivity and prosperity," was a Tennessee Valley Authority on a world scale. "It is as if we were building a TVA every Tuesday."   Yet even after the Greece vote, polls showed tremendous public opposition to any foreign giveaways. In one meeting, the Republican House Majority Leader Charles Halleck told Truman flat out: "You must realize there is a growing resistance to these programs. I have been out on the hustings, and I know. The people don't like it."   The Truman gang had already thought of that. Months before the vote, he brought together the heads of major corporations to enlist them in the cause. Members of this organizing committee, drawn from the Committee for Economic Development, included, most prominently, Hiland Vatcheller, president of the Allegheny-Ludlum Steel Corporation; W. Randolph Burgess, vice-chairman of National City Bank of New York; Paul G. Hoffmann, president of Studebaker Corp. (and later administrator of Marshall funds), as well as the secretary treasurers of the AFL and the CIO.   Leading the corporate charge for secure profits was Will Clayton, the Texas cotton impresario whose business was about to experience a remarkable tax-subsidized boom. The last world war had already made his company the second largest cotton-trading company in the world. Unlike his competitors during the New Deal, while working with FDR to wreck the American economy, he was smart enough to move his operations to Brazil, Mexico, Paraguay, and Egypt. By the Second World War, he was selling 15 percent of the world cotton crop.   As the war ended, he reenlisted in the campaign for the home front. As undersecretary of state for economic affairs in 1947, Clayton too saw the main chance. "Let us admit right off," he said in defense of the idea of foreign aid: "We need markets—big markets—in which to buy and sell." Here is the core truth of all such aid. The intent is not to help foreign countries; it is to reward home-based multinationals who actually get the cash as the government purchases political influence abroad.   Nothing was left to chance. Acheson worked with the established corporate elites and the State Department to create a supposed grass-roots organization called "Citizens' Committee for the Marshall Plan." As many as one thousand speakers representing the group toured the country to whip up support. It also ghost-wrote Congressional testimony from other organizations on behalf of the aid package. As Averell Harriman told several European ambassadors during a visit to the British embassy, they haven't seen anything compared with the "flood of organized propaganda which the Administration is about to unloose."   It was left to Will Clayton to make the economic case. Perversely, he touted the Marshall Plan as the triumph of "free enterprise." Moreover, he said, if communism comes to Europe, "I think the situation which we would face in this country would be a very grave one." We would "have to reorder and readjust our whole economy in this country if we lost the European market."   In the days before the vote, the claims became more extreme and, with the media-corporate-banking- government elite on board, the propaganda became ever more hysterical. We were told that a depression would come. The U.S. would be bombed. We'd be in another war if the aid package failed. The situation is as bleak as it was for France in 1938. American life as we know it would end forthwith.   When the plan passed, as it easily did (with even Taft's vote), the ink was hardly dry on the legislation when the ships full of goods hit the high seas. At any given moment over the next few months, 150 boats were carrying wheat, flour, cotton, tires, borax, drilling equipment, tractors, tobacco, aircraft parts, and anything else big domestic manufacturers could get their hands on.   As with most goods shipped under the Marshall Plan, American producers had the advantage: 50 percent had to be sent on American vessels. Oil exports to Europe exploded even as imports from Europe were cut by one-third. In aid distribution, there was bias in favor of finished goods, to prevent European businesses from competing with American producers on down the production line.   Taking a leaf from the Roosevelt playbook, Truman bypassed the usual bureaucracy and established a new bureau—the Economic Cooperative Administration—to distribute the aid. It too was staffed by the heads of major industrial-corporate interests who stood to benefit at public expense. Paul Hoffman headed the group and passed out billions to well-heeled corporate powers. As historian Anthony Carew summarizes, the Marshall Plan "was in all major respects a business organization run by businessmen." (Hoffman later became head of the far-left Ford Foundation.)   Most of all, the aid was used for purchases at distorted prices by American tax dollars in the hands of European governments. The mad scramble for tax dollars was a disgrace to behold, creating a low point in U.S. business history. Time and again, Congress intervened to grant corporate America what it really wanted: restrictions that forced Marshall aid to go to purchases of American oil, aluminum, wood, textiles, and machines.   The aid was also used to directly subsidize particular firms in recipient countries, whether or not there were viable markets for their products. Instead, the firms received money because their continued existence would artificially support "full employment" policies. And since American labor union groups were intimately involved in choosing who got the money, the lion's share went to companies with closed union shops, paradoxically restricting the ability of labor markets to readjust to new economic realities.   From an economic perspective, the Marshall Plan was modeled on a static view of investment. Countries were asked what their present needs were and the U.S. responded. Not a thought was given to the possibility that economic growth alone would provide. It eventually did, but only after the Marshall Plan welfare was cut off and domestic manufacturers were able to find markets for their products.   The result was the largest peacetime transfer of wealth from the taxpayers to corporations until that point in U.S. history. And it wasn't only dollars that were exported. Through a massive and tax-funded "technical expertise program," European businesses came to the U.S. to take lessons in management practices, visiting mostly unionized automobile companies, electric utility plants, and huge farm operations—the most socialistic of U.S. sectors.   All told, the Marshall Plan dumped $13 billion, or nearly $100 billion in today's dollars. It was enough to firmly entrench American companies in European markets, especially in Britain, France, and Germany. American-controlled companies dominated industries such as shoes, milk, cereals, machines, cars, canned goods, petroleum refinement, locks and keys, printing, tires, soaps, clocks, farm machinery, and much more.   These were mere bubbles of prosperity, forced investment created through insider deals of the worst sort. Indeed, Hoffman worked under the constant fear that the racketeering would come to the surface. He feared some enterprising journalist might expose the entire thing, hearings would follow, and the plan would be discredited. That never happened.   A year after the Marshall Plan began sucking private capital out of the economy, the U.S. fell into recession, precisely the opposite of what its proponents predicted. Meanwhile, the aid did not help Europe. What reconstructed Europe was the post-Marshall freeing up of controlled prices, keeping inflation in check, and curbing union power—that is, the free market. As even Hoffman admitted in his memoir, the aid did not in fact help the economies of Europe. The primary benefit was "psychological." Expensive therapy, indeed.   The actual legacy of the Marshall Plan was a vast expansion of government at home, the beginnings of the Cold War rhetoric that would sustain the welfare-warfare state for 40 years, a permanent global troop presence, and an entire business class on the take from Washington. It also created a belief on the part of the ruling elite in D.C. that it could trick the public into backing anything, including the idea that government and its connected interest groups should run the world at taxpayer expense.  The Secret Art Bunker of Nuremberg  By the time war broke out in 1939, Nazi officials had already developed a detailed plan for a network of tunnels to smuggle and hide valuable artwork.  Though more than 1,800 people in Nuremberg, Germany, died in a fiery hailstorm amid one million incendiary bombs and 120 blockbusters dropped on the city by the British Royal Air Force on Jan. 2, 1945, a horde of Nazi-accumulated artwork survived undamaged in a bunker hidden about 78 feet underground. The secret art bunker of Nuremberg, today known as the Historischer Kunstbunker, held the keys to the historic relics of the Nazis' Party Rally city. The Nazis used a medieval tunnel system underneath Nuremberg's imperial castle to hide the city's ancient treasures, including the Imperial regalia of the Holy Roman Emperor, valuable paintings and even pieces of stained glass windows from local cathedrals. The underground maze had existed since the 14th century—medieval workers used hammers and chisels to carve a labyrinth of tunnels and vaults underneath the castle hill. The naturally cool chambers had been used to store beer and vats of pickled cabbage. The tunnel system runs about four stories deep and spans an estimated total area of six acres—equating to a space of more than six football fields. By the time war broke out in 1939, Nazi officials had already developed a detailed plan to preserve "cultural treasures" in Nuremberg held sacred by Hitler's Third Reich. These items included works of art, religious items and artifacts made in Nuremberg, the former seat of the Holy Roman Empire. Described since the 19th century as the "Treasury of the German Empire," Nuremberg was home to such notable artists as Albrecht Dürer, Hans Sachs and Augustin Hirschvogel. The Nazis found propaganda value in Nuremberg's history and transformed it into a symbol of the Third Reich during the 1930s. City officials collaborated with Heinrich Himmler and the SS to hide artwork in the bunker. The storage site was designed by Dr. Konrad Fries, head of the city's Air Raid Protection department, an architect named Dr. Heinz Schmeissner, and Julius Linke, head of the city's monument preservation department. The secret tunnel system was completely renovated within six months after the war began. Previously, the tunnels were used to store Nazi Party Rally equipment, including props, lighting, and allegedly a podium used by Hitler. Renovations transformed the tunnels into a state-of-the-art artifact preservation facility with air conditioning, ventilation and moisture-control systems, and modern plumbing. Shock-resistant steel doors were designed to withstand bomb tremors. Guards kept watch in chambers equipped with bunks. The facility contained a wireless communication hub and an escape route with a ladder to the surface. Six main chambers were used to store artwork. Artwork with cultural significance to the Third Reich was systematically removed during the war from Nuremberg and other German cities—and from conquered territories—and stored in the bunker. The horde of items packed into the subterranean maze included historic armor and weapons, a globe created by Martin Behaim in 1492, scientific instruments, manuscripts, statues, paintings and drawings. The Nazis removed stained glass windows from Nuremberg's Frauenkirche and St. Lorenz cathedrals and packed them in carefully constructed wooden crates. Afterwards they installed substitute glass in the windows and draped them with long flags to conceal the missing panes from view. Fountains and altarpieces were also stored in the bunker. Artwork was packed into padded boxes as protection from bomb blasts. The most famous items stored in the bunker were the Imperial treasures, called the "Reichskleinodien," which included the jeweled crown, scepter and orb of the ancient Holy Roman Emperor. The Nazis removed these objects from Austria in 1938. Another high-profile item was a Marian altar created by famed German artisan Veit Stoss, stolen from Krakow cathedral in Poland. According to postwar interviews conducted by the U.S. Army, various Nazi leaders worked together to confiscate and store the items, with Himmler and the S.S. playing a key role. Himmler ordered that the Imperial treasures be kept in copper containers. Operations at the bunker were kept top secret. Allied bombings in January and February 1945 razed the Nazis' hallowed city to rubble, killing several thousand people and leaving more than 100,000 residents homeless. All artwork in the bunker was totally unscathed. More than 20,000 civilians huddled in a makeshift air raid shelter beneath the city's Paniersplatz Square during Allied attacks, unaware of the art bunker's existence. As Allied troops closed in at the end of March, Nazi officials frantically relocated the Imperial treasures due to fear of looting. As houses were leveled, streets blocked with rubble and city residents starved, Nazi extremists launched a crackdown to prevent surrender—and nearly destroyed the art bunker. Fanatical Nazi politician Karl Holz commanded Nuremberg's defenses. He ordered that anyone caught attempting to flee the city, waving a white flag or failing to report for work duties would be executed. Using city loudspeakers to spread terror, Holz declared: "Who does not want to live with honor must die in shame," and referred to the Allies as "devils." On Holz's orders, four Nuremberg residents were publicly executed for "disgrace" and an additional 35 citizens were sent to Dachau concentration camp for alleged defeatism. Holz planned to drastically enforce Hitler's "Nero" decree (Nerobefehl), which called upon Germans to self-destruct rather than surrender. As American troops closed in on the outskirts of Nuremberg, Holz prepared to deploy demolition teams to blow up whole sections of the city—including the art bunker, according to later testimony by city official Albert Dreykorn. Holz's plan to destroy the art bunker was allegedly the last straw for city mayor Willy Liebel, a close associate of Albert Speer. Liebel had deported Jews and helped implement Nuremberg racist laws, yet switched side when confronted with the possible destruction of German artwork in the bunker. As American troops entered the eastern outskirts of the city on April 20, 1945, Liebel took refuge in a shelter below city police headquarters and attempted to contact the U.S. Army to negotiate surrender. Hearing of this, Holz entered the room and shot the mayor in the head, according to eyewitness Dreykorn. Claiming Liebel "committed suicide," Holz ordered troops in the city to hold to the last man. The resulting siege cost many lives on both sides during fierce house-to-house fighting. Ultimately Holz was killed during a standoff with American soldiers after refusing four chances to surrender. Following a victory celebration on the city's main square, American troops moved into Nuremberg castle and discovered the steel doors of the secret art bunker. The U.S. Army launched an investigation under the leadership of German-born U.S. Intelligence officer and "Monuments Man" Lt. Walter William Horn. An art expert, Horn had attended Heidelberg University and emigrated to the U.S. due to opposition to Nazism. Horn interrogated 21 people in Nuremberg, including two city councilors. After conducting hard rounds of cross-examination, Horn learned the location of the hidden Imperial treasures. Nazi officials confessed to hiding the items behind a wall in the Paniersplatz civilian air raid shelter, 80 feet below ground. According to Horn's investigation, the Nazis planned to use the Imperial treasures as symbols to inspire a future resistance movement. All works of art and cultural items stored in the secret art bunker of Nuremberg were eventually returned to the places they had occupied before the war. Due to bomb damage, it took more than 70 years before various historic objects could be displayed in restored buildings in Nuremberg. Despite protests from city residents—including Dr. Ernst Gunter Troche, director of the Germanic National Museum—the Holy Roman emperor's Imperial treasures were returned to Vienna, where they had been for 134 years before the Nazis claimed them.   Source: The Secret Art Bunker of Nuremberg How a Psychiatrist at Nuremberg Got Inside the Nazi Mind Assigned to evaluate the Third Reich's top leaders ahead of the Nuremberg Trials, American Douglas Kelley probed how ordinary men could commit extraordinary evil.   When the Allies prepared to put Nazi Germany's top leaders on trial at Nuremberg after World War II, the U.S. Army tapped a young psychiatrist, Captain Douglas McGlashan Kelley, for an extraordinary assignment. Kelley's task was to assess and preserve the mental stability of the captured Nazi elite—men like Hermann Göring and Rudolf Hess—as they awaited judgment for war crimes that had shaken the world. Kelley, who had been overseeing psychiatric services for thousands of G.I.s, was surprised by the order. He had "no experience with war criminals," writes Jack El-Hai in his 2013 book The Nazi and the Psychiatrist: Hermann Göring, Dr. Douglas M. Kelley, and a Fatal Meeting of Minds at the End of WWII. Nor did he have experience with addiction withdrawal, an issue Göring, in particular, was struggling with. But Kelley quickly recognized the opportunity. Rather than just look after the prisoners, he envisioned a far more ambitious project: probing deep into the Nazi mind, looking for an explanation of how anyone could commit the heinous deeds these men were accused of. Were the Nazi leaders somehow different from the rest of humanity? His conclusions would make him one of the most controversial figures in the history of psychiatry—and later play a role in a shocking personal tragedy. Kelley Called Nuremberg a 'Psychiatrist's Playground' Kelley reported for duty in Mondorf-les-Bains, a small resort town in Luxembourg, in August 1945, the same month he turned 33. The Americans had established a top-secret interrogation center there and converted a one-time hotel into a prison (nicknamed "Camp Ashcan") for captured Nazis. Among its occupants were Admiral Karl Dönitz, who had briefly become Germany's head of state after the suicide of Adolf Hitler, and Hermann Göring, Hitler's longtime second-in-command, who would have succeeded Hitler had the two not had a falling out in the final days of the war. In preparation for their war crimes trial, the Army soon transferred Göring and other Nazi leaders to a prison in the bomb-flattened city of Nuremberg, Germany. Kelley moved with them, responsible for interviewing and producing mental evaluations of 22 prisoners prior to trial. "He began to study them as subjects, as a biologist might scrutinize animals confined in laboratory cages," El-Hai writes. For Kelley, the prison was "a psychiatrist's playground." Hermann Göring (R), widely seen as Adolf Hitler's second in command and successor to lead the Third Reich, was the captured Nazi that American psychologist Douglas Kelley spent the most time assessing. 'Like King Kong Meeting Godzilla' With Hitler and several of his key subordinates either dead by suicide or rumored to have escaped to South America or elsewhere, Göring was the most famous Nazi in captivity. He was also the one Kelley spent the most time with, keeping copious notes on their conversations. The two men shared several common traits, El-Hai says. Both could be charming and cleverly manipulative. Both also had narcissistic tendencies, in El-Hai's view, along with outsize egos. In Göring's case, that included a conviction that while he might be executed for his crimes, German history would exonerate—and lionize—him. "In 50 or 60 years, there will be statues of Hermann Göring all over Germany," he told Kelley. "Little statues, maybe, but one in every German home." El-Hai says that he and Kelley's son, Douglas Jr., a major source for the book, used to joke that "Kelley meeting Göring was like King Kong meeting Godzilla." After months of interviewing and administering Rorschach inkblot tests to Göring and his fellow Nazis, El-Hai wrote, Kelley had concluded that "none of the top Nazi prisoners, except [Robert] Ley, who had experienced traumatic brain injury, showed any signs of mental illness or personality traits that would label him insane." As to Göring specifically, El-Hai writes, Kelley "was astonished that such a clearly intelligent and cultured man so blatantly lacked a moral compass and empathy for others."   Ahead of the Nuremberg Trials, top Nazi leaders (seen here on 11/2/1945) were held in a former resort hotel in Luxembourg, nicknamed Camp Ashcan, where they were interrogated and psychologically evaluated.  Bettmann Archive via Getty Images Göring: Trial, Conviction, Suicide Göring and 21 other Nazis went on trial before the International Military Tribunal in November 1945 at the Nuremberg Palace of Justice. About two months into the nearly year-long trial, Kelley left Nuremberg and returned to Chattanooga, Tennessee. He said he wanted to get home to his wife, resume his civilian career and start work on a book based on his experiences. He recalled in it that Göring "wept unashamedly when I left Nuremberg for the States." Göring spent hours on the witness stand, offering a spirited, often defiant defense of both his own behavior and Nazism in general, The New York Times reported. But his wartime record spoke for itself. He was found guilty on all four of the charges against him: conspiracy to wage war, crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity. On October 1, 1946, the tribunal sentenced him to death by hanging. They rejected his request for a firing squad. As El-Hai tells the story, hours before the scheduled execution, Göring slipped a small glass capsule filled with potassium cyanide into his mouth and crushed it with his teeth, most likely dying within seconds. In a note he left behind, he claimed he'd had the cyanide the entire time he was in prison and managed to conceal it despite repeated searches of his cell. News of Göring's suicide took Kelley by surprise. But in the aftermath, Kelley expressed a controversial admiration for his decision to take matters into his own hands, calling the suicide "a skillful, even brilliant, finishing touch." The Allies had another finishing touch in mind—reportedly transporting Göring's corpse to the former concentration camp at Dachau for cremation in one of its infamous oven After Nuremberg, Kelley (L) built a successful career in psychiatry and criminology. Here, as keynote speaker at the 1956 meeting of the Colorado Association for Mental Health, he is speaking to colleagues.  Denver Post via Getty Images Kelley Ends His Life as Göring Did Kelley had returned to a busy civilian life, at various times practicing psychiatry, running a psychiatric hospital, teaching, lecturing and working on his book, 22 Cells in Nuremberg, published in 1947. His public statements often focused on his experiences at Nuremberg and his conclusion that Nazis weren't all that different from other people. "Without Hitler, these people are not abnormal, not pervert[ed], not geniuses," he told the Nashville Tennessean. "They are like any aggressive, smart, ambitious, ruthless businessman." Not everyone agreed with Kelley's diagnosis. Gustave Gilbert, a psychologist who briefly served alongside him at Nuremberg, took a different view. Gilbert had stayed through the trials and written a popular book about them, Nuremberg Diary. Unlike Kelley, Gilbert maintained that Nazis were indeed a breed apart. Göring, he concluded, was an "aggressive psychopath." Both Kelley and Gilbert have since been faulted for trying to explain the "Nazi mind" from such a small sample size. Kelley transitioned from psychiatry into criminology, becoming a go-to consultant for police departments in California, where his family was now living, and a star witness in headline-making criminal cases. When the director Nicholas Ray wanted an expert on juvenile delinquency to review the script for his 1955 film Rebel Without a Cause, he chose Kelley for the job. Kelley also began appearing on a local TV program called "Science in Action." From all appearances, Kelley had found professional success. But his home life in Berkeley was another story. He drank heavily, fought with his wife and behaved tyrannically toward his son, says El-Hai. On New Year's Day 1958, apparently after a fight with his wife, Kelley stormed off to his upstairs study, then emerged to announce that he was about to take cyanide and would be dead in 30 seconds. After putting something in his mouth and swallowing, El-Hai writes, he collapsed "like a slackened marionette." Witnessing the event were Kelley's wife, father and 10-year-old son. Kelley was dead on arrival at a Berkeley hospital. 'He Must Have Just Cracked' The irony of Kelley dying the same way as his most famous patient was lost on no one. Some early accounts even suggested he might have snuck the poison home from Nuremberg, although evidence soon emerged that it came from a U.S.-based chemical supply house. Source: How a Psychiatrist at Nuremberg Got Inside the Nazi Mind | HISTORY 1804–1815 Napoleonic Wars. Rise of Prussia. 1813: Iron Cross established. 1871 German unification. German Empire proclaimed. 1880s–1914 Industrial expansion. Growth of eugenics movement. Alliance systems form. Arms race. 1914–1918 World War I. 1917 Russian Revolution. Bolsheviks seize power. 1918 German surrender. Collapse of German Empire. Collapse of Austro-Hungarian Empire. 1919 Treaty of Versailles. Weimar Republic established. 1922 Soviet Union created. Stalin becomes General Secretary. 1923 Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch. 1924 Lenin dies. Stalin gradually consolidates power. 1929 Wall Street Crash. Worldwide Depression. 1932 According to Erkki Hautamäki, Mannerheim begins maintaining the alleged S-32 intelligence file. 1932–1933 Holodomor in Soviet Ukraine. Stalin's collectivization campaign. 1933 Hitler appointed Chancellor. 1934 Hitler becomes Führer. Night of the Long Knives. 1935 Nuremberg Laws. The two principal laws were: Reich Citizenship Law Defined who could be a citizen of Nazi Germany. Full citizenship was restricted primarily to those the regime classified as having "German or related blood." Jews were reduced to the status of state subjects without full political rights. Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour Prohibited marriages between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. Prohibited sexual relations between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. Restricted Jews from employing certain German women under age 45 in their households. Included other provisions intended to enforce racial separation. Later regulations expanded these laws by defining who the regime considered Jewish or of mixed ancestry, based largely on grandparents rather than religious practice. These laws became a major legal foundation for the Nazi regime's racial policies before World War II. 1935 September 15: Nuremberg Laws adopted at the Nazi Party Rally in Nuremberg. Reich Citizenship Law limits German citizenship to those the regime classified as having "German or related blood." Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour prohibits marriages and sexual relations between Jews and non-Jewish Germans and establishes legal racial separation. 1935: The Nazi regime chose Nuremberg for its annual party rallies because the city had strong symbolic importance. It was associated with the medieval Holy Roman Empire and had become the site of the largest Nazi Party rallies. That's why the racial laws announced there became known as the Nuremberg Laws. 1945: After the war, the Allies chose Nuremberg for the International Military Tribunal largely for practical and symbolic reasons. The Palace of Justice was one of the few large courthouses that had survived the bombing with an attached prison, making it suitable for a major trial. Symbolically, holding the trials in the city where the Nazi Party had staged its massive rallies and proclaimed the Nuremberg Laws underscored the repudiation of the regime. 1936 Rhineland remilitarized. Berlin Olympics. Spanish Civil War begins. 1938 Anschluss. Munich Agreement. Sudetenland. 1939 Britain and France guarantee Poland. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Germany invades Poland. Soviet Union invades eastern Poland. Britain and France declare war. Winter War begins. 1940 Denmark and Norway. France falls. Battle of Britain. 1941 Operation Barbarossa. Germany invades Soviet Union. Pearl Harbor. United States enters the war. 1942 Wannsee Conference. Stalingrad begins. 1943 Stalingrad ends. Allied bombing intensifies. 1944 D-Day. Soviet advances. July 20 plot against Hitler. 1945 Yalta Conference. Hitler dies. Germany surrenders. Potsdam Conference. Hiroshima. Nagasaki. Beginning of Allied occupation. 1945–1946 International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. From here, the story shifts naturally from the war to what followed. 1946 Judgment at the International Military Tribunal. Organization Gehlen begins under U.S. sponsorship. Early Operation Paperclip transfers. 1946–1949 Subsequent Nuremberg Trials. Doctors Trial. Judges Trial. IG Farben Trial. Krupp Trial. Einsatzgruppen Trial. Industrialists and military leaders tried. 1947 CIA established. 1948 Berlin Blockade. Radiological warfare planning begins in the United States. 1949 NATO established. Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb. 1950 According to Hautamäki, the S-32 material is transferred or preserved through Tahvanainen's copies. 1950s Cold War expands. Former German scientists employed in the United States and Soviet Union. Human radiation experiments. Biological and chemical weapons research. 1953 Stalin dies. 1955 West Germany joins NATO. Bundeswehr created. BND established from the Gehlen Organization. 1960s–1980s Cold War. Nuclear arms race. Intelligence operations. Human experimentation controversies become public. 1991 Soviet Union collapses. Soviet archives begin opening. Renewed examination of World War II history. 2004–2005 Erkki Hautamäki publishes Finland in the Eye of the Storm, introducing the alleged S-32 material to a wider audience. 2000s–Present Continued debates over intelligence archives. Declassification of additional WWII and Cold War documents. Russia–Ukraine conflict renews interest in Stalin, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Holodomor, Finland, and the origins of the Second World War. German White Book The German White Book was a 1939 diplomatic publication issued by the German Foreign Office presenting documents and arguments about the German–Polish crisis immediately before the outbreak of the Second World War. It was intended to justify Germany's actions to domestic and international audiences and is now studied primarily as a historical source illustrating Nazi diplomatic messaging and propaganda. Purpose and contents Published under the full title Documents Concerning the Last Phase of the German-Polish Crisis, the work assembled selected diplomatic correspondence, official statements, and explanatory notes. Its central claim was that Germany had acted reasonably while placing responsibility for the crisis on Poland and, indirectly, on Britain. The English-language edition distributed in New York was only 48 pages long, making it a concise political document rather than a comprehensive historical record. Historical context The book appeared immediately after Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, marking the beginning of the Second World War in Europe. Like the diplomatic "white books," "blue books," and similar collections published by several governments during international crises, it sought to influence public opinion by presenting a carefully curated documentary record supporting its government's position. Historical assessment Modern historians generally treat the German White Book as a primary source for understanding how Nazi Germany explained and defended its foreign policy rather than as a neutral account of events. The selection, omission, and framing of documents reflected the political objectives of the German government, making the publication valuable for studying wartime diplomacy and propaganda alongside other countries' official document collections. Legacy Today, the book is found mainly in research libraries, archives, and historical collections. Scholars use it to compare Germany's official narrative with diplomatic records from other governments and with later historical research into the origins of the Second World War, rather than as a definitive account of the 1939 crisis. Freemasonry, Bolshevism:  The Stalin-Churchill Pact The facts are, as I have previously covered, and which is well documented, Hitler did not want war with Poland, much less with England and France.  He tried for many years to come to a reasonable, honorable and peaceful settlement with Poland, with the assistance of England. The British, French, Soviets and Americans seemed to only have been looking for an excuse to war again with Germany, and to provoke one with their belligerence regarding the Versailles Dictates, and overtly through their proxies, particularly in Czechoslovakia. That was thwarted, at least temporarily, with the Munich Agreement. But the Poles who had regressed into stubbornness following the death Marshal Pilsudski,  became increasingly more belligerent concerning Danzig and the corridor issues, once they had received military assurances from France and England. No attention was paid by the world media or the League of Nations to the suffering of the ethnic Germans in Poland whose human rights were increasingly being violated, followed by brutal pogroms, with thousands upon thousands of refugees streaming across the frontier into Germany.  There were also numerous reported incursions into Germany by Polish forces. Hitler, who had been more patient and diplomatic than even many in his own party could comprehend, could no longer allow this situation continue. It was then just a matter of how to deal with it, without immediately bringing down the wrath of the international war mongers upon Germany. Right from the beginning, in the early days in Munich, Hitler had declared himself at war against Bolshevism, which already had its tentacles well established in Germany, and particularly in Bavaria. He never ceased to fight them throughout his years of political struggle and in street battles, nor to root them out once he finally achieved power in 1933.  Indeed, Bolshevism had some roots in Germany, as well as Paris, London and New York, and not to mention Washington, DC, where the Roosevelt administration was oozing Red.  Jüri Lina's documentary, based upon his book and his deep research, proves that Communism was the product of Freemasonry and High Finance (the International Bankster Gangsters) and completely supportive of the barbaric Bolsheviks, who profited immensely from it. In many public speeches, Hitler had also declared himself at war with High Finance, "International Jewry" and Freemasonry.  So, again, is it any surprise that they declared war on Germany in 1933? Obviously, he was NOT one of theirs, and he had other ideas about how and by whom Germany should be governed and financed, and whom the new German government should serve: das Volk!  Thus, it was no small or easy decision for Hitler to sign a "Friendship Pact" with Stalin, whom he had no illusions about. But after all, England had refused Germany's friendship, while the French leadership involved itself in various anti-German intrigues. After the invasion of Poland and especially, after victory over France, Hitler made mention of the documents he had found, which laid out clearly a great conspiracy. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, signed on August 23, 1939 gave Hitler a free hand to deal with Poland militarily, in a way that might prevent a larger and more catastrophic war, or so he hoped. It also opened the door to trade with the Soviets, in particular for much needed resources in return for German weapons and technology, but also in terms of "spheres of influence" which Hitler also hoped would keep the Russian Bear at bay, perhaps long enough to buy himself some time in a potential war with the West. But I do not believe for a minute that Hitler, in spite of his public rhetoric, ever took his eyes off of Stalin via his military and other intelligence branches. Indeed, it would not have been lost upon him that when the Soviets joined the battle in Poland on September 17th, 1939, that neither France nor England declared war on the Soviets. Obviously something was wrong with this picture, and you didn't need to be genius to figure it out. Stalin had his own agenda, which was always the Bolshevik Communist agenda to take over all of Europe, and the world. He was a "wild card" and a whore who knew that virtually everyone had an interest in obtaining his services in the interests of serving their own agendas. The British knew all too well what had taken place in the Soviet Union, not only with the overthrow and murder of the Czar and his family, but the years of brutal tyranny, mass murder and slavery, as did the USA, but they hid it from the masses as best they could. Yet in 1939, while the Royals and the "upper crust" of British society quietly backed Hitler whom they saw as a defense against Bolshevism, the British Government secretly entertained the butcher. He wanted a bidding war for his services and his allegiance, and was playing everyone. The Bolshevik Communist goal was always to have the Western powers fight each other into exhaustion, and then to quickly roll over them.  The National Socialists were wise to that plan and I believe this is why Hitler always sought friendship with England, with whom Germany had much more in common, on economic and cultural levels, that is, unless you count in Fleet Street and the City of London. A Dirty Little Secret Revealed Here is yet another fact that you won't hear discussed on the History Channel, nor on the BBC.  Why? Because you weren't supposed to know!  Secret negotiations between Churchill and Stalin for mutual co-operation in a four front war against Germany began in April 1939, and by July they had already agreed that if Germany were to attack Poland, a declaration of war by the western Allies would only be against Germany, and not the Soviets.  So Stalin's "Friendship Pact" with Hitler was a complete charade. By the way, this is also in the time frame when Polish atrocities against ethnic Germans were ramped up. The barbarous nature of those heinous crimes, and in particular, those later witnessed in the Bromberg Massacre bear a suspicious resemblance to those committed by the NKVD and Cheka in the Soviet Union, and in the Spanish Civil War. Germany had, of course, played a major role their in defeating the Bolsheviks. On October 15th, 1939 Winston Churchill, the International Bankster Gangster's Boy and High Level Freemason, came to a verbal agreement with other the International Bankster Gangster's Boy and fellow High Level Freemason Stalin. Following this agreement, Stalin had a free hand to invade Finland, while Churchill would invade Scandinavia, for the purposes of attacking Germany from the North, blocking access to shipments of raw materials, and controlling the northern sea lanes, essentially denying Germany any access to the open ocean.  The Half-American Churchill, of course, was not yet the Prime Minister, but had been one of the war mongers seeking to oust the "appeaser" Chamberlain, no doubt hand picked by the City of London. Stalin would later sign the pact in writing on January 28th, 1940 and Churchill on February 8th, 1940. How do we know this? Marshall Mannerheim's Secret file S-32, as detailed below. But, before we go there, I must say that there are still those out there who say "Hitler let the Brits get away at Dunkirk" and others who say "Hitler was stupid for trying to fight a war on two fronts!"  I have covered both Dunkirk and Operation Barbarossa in a number of older posts. Hitler had no choice but to attack the Soviets, as they were poised to attack Germany and to roll through Europe. Of course he never wanted a "two front war". Who would?  It was his worst nightmare. But it got worse. What about a four front war as the Allies planned? Stalin was going to stab Hitler in the back.  He probably assumed that Hitler would lose a lot more of his troops and weapons against the BEF at Dunkirk, or indeed, may have  thought that Hitler would carry on to invade Britain, leaving the rear wide open to him.  That would have been suicide, don't you think?.  Do we really think Hitler didn't bear that in mind? Hitler went into great detail about all of the intel reports he received in his speech when declared war on the Soviet Union. We also know now that this threat was really thanks to Viktor Suvorov. I am sure Stalin was very surprised at how fast Germany dispensed with the French and Brits and was caught totally off guard. Not only by the speed of the Germans, but also their skill and ability, despite the overwhelming superior troop strength, and the weapons and resources of the Allies. The Germans were also very conservative in their use of weapons (including tanks and planes) and munitions in the West. Thus, they had much more left with which to fight the Soviets later. Some say Hitler should have just "hit Stalin and run". Hitler could not simply hope to cripple the Soviets temporarily and then leave. And go where exactly? There was no way Stalin would call it quits and walk away. The USSR was backed all the way by the USA who were supplying them with money, weapons and machinery through Lend-Lease, and Hitler knew it. It was "go all the way" and "do or die". And he came "oh so close", especially with the help he got from the millions of non-German Waffen SS volunteers. Sadly, he had traitors within his General Staff who did not carry out his orders, or sometimes did exactly the opposite of what Hitler had commanded. One more thing…at the outbreak of war, Britain and France moved very quickly to officially recognize the government of Spain under Franco and Churchill bribed him to not support Germany, or to give minimal and grudging support at best. Hitler despised Franco for this, after all Hitler had done for him, and wondered why he was so difficult to deal with. But the bribery story only came out in recent years. Now to "S-32" Erkki Hautamäki's book, "Finland in the Eye of the Storm" "Larger nations displayed a ruthless disdain towards smaller nations and their right to remain neutral. In its entirety are revealed, the secret agreements, political intrigue, deception and an inconceivable chain of events that led to the beginning of the Second World War and finally its end. Even Finland, a small northern republic and democracy was unwittingly drawn to this war frenzy of the lager nations. Finland was however fortunate in those years of turmoil to have as its military and political leader a figure of great foresight and determination in the form of field Marshall Mannerheim. He had a broad experience spanning many years in international politics and a network of contacts on to which Finland was able to build the military and political alliances that saved the country. During the Winter War, having received details of a secret agreement between the Western Powers and the Soviet Union to destroy Germany, Mannerheim, along with Finland's political leaders made crucial decisions that saved the nation and possibly all the Nordic countries from becoming one large battleground. From 1932 onwards, Mannerheim kept original documents consisting of, for example, secret reports, letters, personal notes, into a file code named "S-32". Political reasons stopped Mannerheim from using this file as evidence after the war. I have used secret documents, which victor nations have suppressed for 50 years, in Marshall C.G.E. Mannerheim's file "S-32" as the basis of my research. This material can finally shed some light on the historical truth that was not published along with Mannerheim's memoirs. I have strived to merge the dramatic content in file S-32 with other source material and to display it in chronological order to give a clear account of political and military development in Europe. We can thus follow a logical chain of historical events, which lead us on from the First World War. We will come to realize – as the Marshall used to say- that matters which were put forward to him were often so complex, unclear and even unbelievable that he had to pause to get a sense of what was actually meant. The same patience is asked of the reader. With this book I hope to prove, particularly to my Finnish countrymen along with readers from other countries that our wartime leaders were not guilty of the crimes they were blamed for or the wars Finland was dragged into between 1939-1945. […] Erkki Hautamäki, who holds the rank of Major in the Finnish army, has at his disposal the secret files of Vilho Tahvanainen, an undercover courier and trusted aid to Marshall Mannerheim. The Tahvanainen files consist of copies of Mannerheim's secret (S-32) files covering the years 1932-50 duplicated with the authority of the Marshall himself. The author of this book has had a unique opportunity to compare and contrast documents and files from different countries and get an idea of the behind the scenes politics of the larger nations during WW2. "Churchill and Stalin negotiated the starting of co-operation in a war of many fronts against Germany since April 1939. In July it was agreed that when Germany and the Soviet Union attack Poland, the declaration of war of the western allies would be focused only against German actions. On the 23rd of August 1939 Stalin and Hitler signed the so called Molotov-Ribbentrop agreement. Its secret extra protocol included the so-called concept of the sphere of interest that did not mean permission to conquer the Baltic states and Finland. It meant instead the right to demand strategic bases in case of war. On the 15th of October 1939 an agreement was signed between Stalin and Churchill (the allied forces). The core of it was the plan to destroy Germany both militarily and economically. Churchill's old plan regarding the Scandinavian operation was also accepted. […] The winter war of Finland did not stop because of Stalin's fear of a possible threat of western allies attacking to defend Finland. It ended when Hitler sent Stalin an edict that Stalin shall cease the acts of war against Finland, or Germany will bombard Soviet troops and fight for Finland unbidden. The Marshal received from Hitler information about this edict and copies of the plan of the western allies and Stalin concerning Finland. If this would have happened, the allied forces would have conquered Norway and Sweden in the name of Finnish aid. Simultaneously the Soviet Union would have conquered Finland. Finland would have drawn into war and Scandinavia would have been a front against Germany. Churchill and the allied forces thus sold Finland to the Russians. Stalin played simultaneously an ally of Germany and the western allies. His goal was to get the western allies and Germany to wear themselves down in their fighting against each other. After this he would conquer a weakened Europe. Stalin purchased first the newest mechanical weaponry from Germany. After it he obtained from the USA an immense amount of war material against Germany (and Finland) as Lend-lease aid. No final account of these possessions has yet been made. The unconditional denial of passage for allied forces through Sweden partially saved Finland. The agreement of Churchill and Stalin allowed the conquering of Scandinavia and the Baltic countries. A section was added that the conquered areas should be given their independence back after peace had come. When the general courier of Stalin was transporting the strategic war plans from Churchill, the air force of Germany compelled the airplane to land on 9 Feb. 1940. During the examination of the air crew and the passengers, all documents were photographed. Hitler received exact information about the attack plans on several fronts of the allied forces. He thus started a preventive attack plan in Norway. Stalin did not know that the plans had been revealed. The Marshal's so called scabbard order of the day on 9 July 1941 was born after Hitler's edict to unambiguously express the goals of Finnish warfare, or otherwise Germany starts taking Finland under its government. "Source :  http://juliusmilaitis.bloSgspot.de/2 Held for the purpose of bringing Nazi war criminals to justice, the Nuremberg trials were a series of 13 trials carried out in Nuremberg, Germany, between 1945 and 1949. The defendants, who included Nazi Party officials and high-ranking military officers along with German industrialists, lawyers and doctors, were indicted on such charges as crimes against peace and crimes against humanity. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) committed suicide and was never brought to trial. Although the legal justifications for the trials and their procedural innovations were controversial at the time, the Nuremberg trials are now regarded as a milestone toward the establishment of a permanent international court, and an important precedent for dealing with later instances of genocide and other crimes against humanity. Shortly after Adolf Hitler came to power as chancellor of Germany in 1933, he and his Nazi government began implementing policies designed to persecute German-Jewish people and other perceived enemies of the Nazi state. Over the next decade, these policies grew increasingly repressive and violent and resulted, by the end of World War II (1939-45), in the systematic, state-sponsored murder of some 6 million European Jews (along with an estimated 4 million to 6 million non-Jews). Did you know? The death sentences imposed in October 1946 were carried out by Master Sergeant John C. Woods (1903-50), who told a reporter from Time magazine that he was proud of his work. "The way I look at this hanging job, somebody has to do it . . . 10 men in 103 minutes. That's fast work." In December 1942, the Allied leaders of Great Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union "issued the first joint declaration officially noting the mass murder of European Jewry and resolving to prosecute those responsible for violence against civilian populations," according to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM). Joseph Stalin (1878-1953), the Soviet leader, initially proposed the execution of 50,000 to 100,000 German staff officers. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874-1965) discussed the possibility of summary execution (execution without a trial) of high-ranking Nazis, but was persuaded by American leaders that a criminal trial would be more effective. Among other advantages, criminal proceedings would require documentation of the crimes charged against the defendants and prevent later accusations that the defendants had been condemned without evidence. There were many legal and procedural difficulties to overcome in setting up the Nuremberg trials. First, there was no precedent for an international trial of war criminals. There were earlier instances of prosecution for war crimes, such as the execution of Confederate army officer Henry Wirz (1823-65) for his maltreatment of Union prisoners of war during the AmericanCivil War (1861-65); and the courts-martial held by Turkey in 1919-20 to punish those responsible for the Armenian genocide of 1915-16. However, these were trials conducted according to the laws of a single nation rather than, as in the case of the Nuremberg trials, a group of four powers (France, Britain, the Soviet Union and the U.S.) with different legal traditions and practices. The Allies eventually established the laws and procedures for the Nuremberg trials with the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT), issued on August 8, 1945. Among other things, the charter defined three categories of crimes: crimes against peace (including planning, preparing, starting or waging wars of aggression or wars in violation of international agreements), war crimes (including violations of customs or laws of war, including improper treatment of civilians and prisoners of war) and crimes against humanity (including murder, enslavement or deportation of civilians or persecution on political, religious or racial grounds). It was determined that civilian officials as well as military officers could be accused of war crimes. The city of Nuremberg (also known as Nurnberg) in the German state of Bavaria was selected as the location for the trials because its Palace of Justice was relatively undamaged by the war and included a large prison area. Additionally, Nuremberg had been the site of annual Nazi propaganda rallies; holding the postwar trials there marked the symbolic end of Hitler's government, the Third Reich. The Major War Criminals' Trial: 1945-46 The best-known of the Nuremberg trials was the Trial of Major War Criminals, held from November 20, 1945, to October 1, 1946. The format of the trial was a mix of legal traditions: There were prosecutors and defense attorneys according to British and American law, but the decisions and sentences were imposed by a tribunal (panel of judges) rather than a single judge and a jury. The chief American prosecutor was Robert H. Jackson (1892-1954), an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Each of the four Allied powers supplied two judges–a main judge and an alternate. Twenty-four individuals were indicted, along with six Nazi organizations determined to be criminal (such as the "Gestapo," or secret state police). One of the indicted men was deemed medically unfit to stand trial, while a second man killed himself before the trial began. Hitler and two of his top associates, Heinrich Himmler (1900-45) and Joseph Goebbels (1897-45), had each committed suicide in the spring of 1945 before they could be brought to trial. The defendants were allowed to choose their own lawyers, and the most common defense strategy was that the crimes defined in the London Charter were examples of ex post facto law; that is, they were laws that criminalized actions committed before the laws were drafted. Another defense was that the trial was a form of victor's justice–the Allies were applying a harsh standard to crimes committed by Germans and leniency to crimes committed by their own soldiers. As the accused men and judges spoke four different languages, the trial saw the introduction of a technological innovation taken for granted today: instantaneous translation. IBM provided the technology and recruited men and women from international telephone exchanges to provide on-the-spot translations through headphones in English, French, German and Russian. In the end, the international tribunal found all but three of the defendants guilty. Twelve were sentenced to death, one in absentia, and the rest were given prison sentences ranging from 10 years to life behind bars. Ten of the condemned were executed by hanging on October 16, 1946. Hermann Göring (1893-1946), Hitler's designated successor and head of the "Luftwaffe" (German air force), committed suicide the night before his execution with a cyanide capsule, he had hidden in a jar of skin medication. Following the Trial of Major War Criminals, there were 12 additional trials held at Nuremberg. These proceedings, lasting from December 1946 to April 1949, are grouped together as the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings. They differed from the first trial in that they were conducted before U.S. military tribunals rather than the international tribunal that decided the fate of the major Nazi leaders. The reason for the change was that growing differences among the four Allied powers had made other joint trials impossible. The subsequent trials were held in the same location at the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg. These proceedings included the Doctors Trial (December 9, 1946-August 20, 1947), in which 23 defendants were accused of crimes against humanity, including medical experiments on prisoners of war. In the Judges Trial (March 5-December 4, 1947), 16 lawyers and judges were charged with furthering the Nazi plan for racial purity by implementing the eugenics laws of the Third Reich. Other subsequent trials dealt with German industrialists accused of using slave labor and plundering occupied countries; high-ranking army officers accused of atrocities against prisoners of war; and SS officers accused of violence against concentration-camp inmates. Of the 185 people indicted in the subsequent Nuremberg trials, 12 defendants received death sentences, 8 others were given life in prison and an additional 77 people received prison terms of varying lengths, according to the USHMM. Authorities later reduced a number of the sentences. The Nuremberg trials were controversial even among those who wanted the major criminals punished. Harlan Stone (1872-1946), chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court at the time, described the proceedings as a "sanctimonious fraud" and a "high-grade lynching party." William O. Douglas (1898-1980), then an associate U.S. Supreme Court justice, said the Allies "substituted power for principle" at Nuremberg. Nonetheless, most observers considered the trials a step forward for the establishment of international law. The findings at Nuremberg led directly to the United Nations Genocide Convention (1948) and Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), as well as the Geneva Convention on the Laws and Customs of War (1949). In addition, the International Military Tribunal supplied a useful precedent for the trials of Japanese war criminals in Tokyo (1946-48); the 1961 trial of Nazi leader Adolf Eichmann (1906-62); and the establishment of tribunals for war crimes  Source: What Were the Nuremberg Trials? | HISTORY The Legally-Flawed Nuremberg "War Crimes Trials" Did Not "Prove" the Holocaust The Holocaust storytellers like to claim that the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials "proved" the mass murder of Jews in open court. In reality, nothing of the sort was ever proved.   The Holocaust storytellers like to claim that the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials "proved" the mass murder of Jews in open court.In reality, nothing of the sort was ever proved, and the main charges did not relate at all to the alleged mass murder of Jews. Below: The Nuremberg Trials have been dismissed by all honest legal experts as a farce. People were charged on hearsay evidence, and for "crimes" such as "waging aggressive war." The Soviets, who had invaded Poland, Finland, and the Baltic States earlier in the war, sat on the judges' panel and sentenced German leaders to death for invading Poland. The actual indictments at the main Nuremberg Trials were as follows: "1. Participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of a crime against peace. "2. Planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace. "3. War crimes. "4. Crimes against humanity." In normal legal systems, it is an established legal principle that no one can be charged for a crime that was not a crime at the time the act was committed—in other words, that no one can be charged retrospectively for an act which was not classified as a crime at the time when it was committed. The Nuremberg Trial indictments are clearly a major abrogation of this principle, a fact which led the famous British General Bernard Montgomery, victor of the Battle of El Alamein, to remark with reference to the Nuremberg Trials that he no longer wished to lead any armies because it had now "become a crime to lose a war." The legal basis of these main charges aside, the entire Nuremberg Trials process was from the very beginning a mockery because one of the judging parties—the Soviet Union—had, for the first two years of the war, been an ally of Nazi Germany! For the German leaders to be charged with "waging aggressive war" and "planning, initiating, and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace"—and then to be found guilty thereof by judges who included Soviets, is one of the most extreme acts of twisted irony ever seen on the international legal stage. If Germany could be charged for invading Poland on September 1, 1939 (the main charge of "waging aggressive war"), then why were the Soviets not charged for invading Poland on September 17, 1939—after concluding a secret deal with Nazi Germany over the matter? Why was the Soviet Union not charged with "waging aggressive war" over its invasion of neutral Finland on November 30, 1939? In addition, nothing was said of the seizure of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia by the Soviet Union in June 1940. The irony of the Soviets sitting in judgment over the Germans on charges of "waging aggressive war" was but only one of the many travesties of justice at the Nuremberg Trials. The third charge, that of "war crimes" was equally outrageous. According to the definition used at the trials, a war crime was "a serious violation of the laws and customs of war." The mass Allied bombing of German civilians—started by Britain (with the Germans only retaliating after months of nightly bombing)—was certainly a violation of the "laws and customs of war," as were the mass rapes of German women carried out by Soviet soldiers in 1945. However, these same Allies saw fit to put German leaders on trial for a handful of outrageous acts committed by underlings—none of which were ever sanctioned at senior level, unlike the bombing of civilians, an idea which came from Winston Churchill himself. The fourth charge, "Crimes against humanity" was vaguely defined by the Nuremberg Trials as acts "committed in execution of, or in connection with, the aggressive war, and therefore constituted crimes against humanity" (Judgment: The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, Judgment of the International Military Tribunal). In other words, none of the defendants at Nuremberg were specifically charged with the mass gassing of Jews or the operation of extermination camps. They were only alleged to have been "generally responsible." As a result, it is untrue to claim that the Nuremberg Trials "proved the Holocaust." Even much of the "evidence" produced at those trials has long since been accepted as false. A reading of some of the incredible evidence presented as evidence borders on the laughable if it were not so illustrative of the outrageousness of the "trials." By way of example, some of the "evidence" submitted to Nuremberg under the "crimes against humanity" charge included wild claims of "Jewish soap," "shrunken heads," "lampshades," "gassing by steam", execution by "electrocution," socks made of human hair, and even an astonishing affidavit by a "survivor" which claimed that the SS had killed Jews in one of the Polish camps with a "pedal-driven brain-bashing machine." All of this was accepted at face value during the court proceedings, even though they have long since been dismissed as lies by all serious historians.   Source:  The Legally-Flawed Nuremberg "War Crimes Trials" Did Not "Prove" the Holocaust The Nuremberg trials (1945 - 1949) and the Confessions under torture The Nuremberg trials from 1945 to 1949 and the "confessions" under torture Germar Rudolf:"The Nuremberg trials were held in the German city of Nuremberg from 1945 to 1949. These trials were held by the victorious Allies (France, Great Britain, the United States and Soviet Russia) with the Germans as defendants. It was the worst kind of show trial, with the chief judge being Nikichenko, who had presided over the 1936-1938 Stalin show trials in the Soviet Union. The court made ridiculous findings such as turning Jews into lampshades and even soap, these claims are now discredited and the Holocaust museum in Israel admits they were false. U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone called the Nuremberg trials a fraud. He stated that "U.S. Attorney General Jackson is off conducting his high-level lynching party at Nuremberg." He added, "I don't care what he does to the Nazis, but I hate to see the pretense that he is running a court and proceeding according to common law."President John F Kennedy, in his book Profiles in Courage, criticized Nuremberg as a "show trial. "The Allies used extremely brutal torture against their German prisoners, not only during the war, but also afterwards, to force them to provide fraudulent confessions for crimes they never committed - all in order to secure convictions at war crimes trials. The subject is well known to revisionists, but the facts have been suppressed by the mainstream for over 70 years.U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy, in a statement to the American press on May 20, 1949, called attention to cases of torture to obtain confessions.In addressing these cases, Senator McCarthy told the press: "I have heard testimony and read documentary evidence that the defendants were beaten, abused, and physically tortured by methods that could only be conceived in diseased brains. They were subjected to mock trials and alleged executions, they were told that their families would be deprived of their ration cards. All these things were done with the approval of the prosecutor in order to provide the psychological atmosphere necessary to extract the required confessions. If the United States allows such acts by a few people to go unpunished, then the whole world may rightly criticize us severely and forever doubt the correctness of our motives and moral integrity." The methods of intimidation described were repeated at the Frankfurt/Main and Dachau trials, and many Germans were convicted of atrocities on the basis of their confessions. Methods used by American interrogators included brutal beatings, hooding the prisoner and hitting him in the face with brass knuckles, breaking his jaw, pulling his teeth, giving him starvation rations, and putting him in solitary confinement. The prisoners were then presented with prepared statements to sign, "confessing" to various crimes." The Nuremberg prosecutors - Kempner, Rapp, Niederman - all Jewish. In a letter to his wife, Nuremberg Chief Prosecutor Thomas J. Dodd wrote that the prosecution team was 75% Jewish. The "confession" of Auschwitz commandant Rudolf Hoess No evidence supports the Holocaust hoax more than the statements or "confessions" of Rudolf Hoess, the former camp commander of Auschwitz-Birkenau. The reasons why this "confession" was not only important but essential to the Allied prosecutors was that they had no real evidence for their monstrous claims; they had no autopsies, no documents, or even a credible theory of how crimes of such magnitude could have been committed. In comparison, getting a confession was childishly easy. In his memoirs written in the last months of his life, while in captivity in Poland awaiting execution, former Auschwitz commandant Rudolf Hoess wrote that he was severely mistreated by his British captors just after the war ended. "I was treated terribly by the [British] field security police. ... During the first interrogation, they beat me to get evidence. I don't know what's in the transcript, or what I said, even though I signed it, because they gave me alcohol and beat me with a whip. It was too much to bear, even for me. ... Minden on the Weser River ... there they treated me even worse, especially the first British prosecutor, who was a major. ... I was for all intents and purposes psychologically dissected. ... They also left me in no doubt as to what would happen to me." Rudolf Hoess, pictured in his Nuremberg prison uniform, was subjected to violent torture for days and nights on end by his British Army captors. When his "confession" was presented in court as "proof of the Holocaust," he admitted that he would have confessed to anything to stop the relentless torture. The book "Legions of Death", written by Rupert Butler and published by Hamlyn Books, London, UK, 1983; pages 234-238, deals with this subject. Germar Rudolf continues: "The American investigators in charge of the interrogations (and who later acted as prosecutors in the trials) were: lieutenant colonel Burton F. Ellis (head of the War Crimes Committee) and his assistants, Captain Raphael Shumacker, lieutenant Robert E. Byrne, lieutenant William R. Perl, Mr. Morris Ellowitz, Mr. Harry Thon and Mr. Kirschbaum. The legal adviser to the court was Colonel A. H. Rosenfeld. The reader will immediately understand from their names that the majority of these people were "racially biased," in the words of Judge Wenersturm - that is, they were Jewish, and therefore should never have been involved in such an investigation. When General Taylor, the Attorney General, was asked where he got the "six million" figure, he replied that it was based on the confession of S.S. General Otto Ohlendorf. He too was tortured. But as to these "confessions" in general, we can do no better than to quote the British Sunday Pictorial in reviewing Judge van Roden's report: "Strong men were reduced to broken wrecks ready to mumble any confession demanded by their prosecutors." Virtually all of the American investigators who brought cases before the U.S. military tribunals at Dachau were "Jewish refugees from Germany" who "hated the Germans," recalled Joseph Halow, a U.S. Army court reporter at the Dachau trials in 1947. "Many of the investigators gave vent to their hatred by trying to force the Germans to confess by treating them brutally," including "beating them severely." Benjamin Ferencz (above, left), the senior American Jewish prosecutor at the Nuremberg war crimes tribunals in 1945 and 1947 recalls how testimony was sorted: "We did not have a regular courtroom where we could call witnesses and question them, with a secretary and someone to cross-examine or guarantee their rights. We would gather the statements of the witnesses that we considered favorable and they would write an affidavit. And then they would swear it in front of an officer. If it came from a hostile witness, we would interview them in private to see if we could determine the truth. And when we got to the point where we felt we had established the truth, we would ask him to write in his own handwriting and sign it; and then we would usually bring an officer in to testify to it." - USHMM 1994 interview. Lieutenant William Perl (above, center) was an Austrian Jew who had emigrated to America in 1940. He was the primary interrogator of the Germans accused of the Malmedy massacre. Indeed, he was fluent in German and, in fact, many of the interrogators at Nuremberg were German or Austrian Jews who had emigrated to America before World War II and were known as the "Ritchie Boys." There were about 9,000 of these Jews in America and they specialized in the "interrogation" of German prisoners. Perl was an active Zionist who had worked to smuggle European Jews into Palestine before coming to America. Perl was also a good friend and associate of Zionist Ze'ev Jabotinsky, founder of the murderous Irgun terrorist organization in Israel. Perl supervised the torture of the German defendants. Colonel Robin Stephens (pictured above, right) was responsible for a sadistic torture program during and after World War II, still largely covered up by the British government. Much of the coerced "evidence" fabricated was used as a pretext to convict National Socialist leaders of war crimes." The London Cage was used in part as a torture center, inside which large numbers of German officers and soldiers were subjected to systematic abuse. A total of 3,573 men passed through the Cage, a network of nine "cages" throughout Britain run by the Prisoner of War Interrogation Section (PWIS), which was part of the Directorate of Military Intelligence, and more than 1,000 were persuaded to make statements about war crimes. Moreover, the brutality did not end with the war: a number of German civilians joined the military who were interrogated there until 1948. Red Cross inspections could never take place in these interrogation centers, as the British authorities, as Darius Rejali states in his book Torture and Democracy, refused to allow them, arguing that "the prisoners were either civilians or criminals within the armed forces, and therefore not protected by the Geneva Convention.  Source : Les procès de Nuremberg de 1945 à 1949 et les "confessions" sous la torture Youth Ceremonies —Rites of Passage for the Youth The following pieces are the core of Kieckebusch's thorough treatment: 'How Do We Organize Youth Ceremonies?" The proposed organization of the ceremony is taken from last year's ceremonies by Kreisleitung Northeim. It was developed by party member [propaganda] rings. The musical suggestions were developed by party member Köhler, head of the Music School for Youth and Nation in Hanover. The remaining material was developed by Gau Education Chief Kieckbusch of Hanover, who prepared this material for the Hoheitsträger and the districts in his Gau. The transition from 14 to 15 is an important event for the youth. Many finish school and leave their parents' home to take up an occupation. The boys move from the Jungvolk to the Hitler Youth and the girls move from the Jungmädel to the League of German Girls. More than that, each youth now has greater independence, which is signified by the fact that each German upon completion of the fourteenth year has legal freedom of conscience. Each German at 14 is allowed to choose his faith. His inner beliefs can now become public. A greater sense of independence develops in all other areas of life as well. To hold a brief moment of contemplation at the beginning of this process is both an inner need and an old tradition of our people. The NSDAP would neglect a major part of its responsibility, education and leadership, if it did not provide a way for our youth to celebrate this rite of passage. The Hitler Youth and National Socialist teachers and schools also have their inner and outer parts to play. However, were each of these to organize its own ceremony for the youth, it would disrupt the unified experience of the youth and destroy the ever necessary unity of the National Socialist movement. That danger is particularly great today since we are at the beginning of developing our ability to lead through ceremonies. And as good as the individual attempts at organizing ceremonies by the various groups may be, it is necessary to maintain the unity of the National Socialist worldview. Here, as in every other area, we must develop a unified National Socialist system of ceremonies. This will naturally have to include all relevant groups. The Hitler Youth, schools, and parents must join to develop a unified ceremony for the youth under the authority of the NSDAP. What follows is a plan for youth ceremonies which has already proved itself in one district of the NSDAP, and which exemplifies a unified National Socialist approach to ceremonies. In that Gau with its 27 counties, the party, the Hitler Youth and the schools have already made plans for the coming year. Since it has proven itself, it is provided here for all party leaders in the Greater German Reich. (Himstedt) How Do I Organize a Youth Ceremony? Basic Principles The National Socialist ceremony for the youth is organized by the party! The need for a unified National Socialist ceremony alongside confessional confirmation and communion has led to a variety of attempts to make the ceremony of the youth organization of the school the leading one. Graduation from school, the transition from the Young People to the Hitler Youth, beginning an apprenticeship, etc., are occasions for ceremonies. They are landmarks along the way of a larger process: maturation. At these "turning points," which have to be seen from a National Socialist standpoint, the party is responsible for promoting the idea in the lives of young Germans. The party leader is therefore responsible for these ceremonies The name of the ceremony No satisfactory name for the ceremony has yet been found. Consider the normal personal ceremonies: the Geburtsfeier [birth celebration] (including naming), Hochzeitsfeier [weddings], Totenfeier [funerals]. That would make the term Jugendfeier [youth ceremony] appropriate. But if one considers the content of the ceremony, the word Lebensfeier [life ceremony] is appropriate, since it suggests the transition from childhood to adulthood. Instead of the term Jugendfeier, the word Jugendbekenntnis [youth affirmation] has been proposed, which also is related to the content of the ceremony. None of these words is completely satisfactory. Considering such common phrases as "Best wishes on the occasion of your Lebenswende [life turning point], the term Lebenswende may be the most useful. Should a better term be found, we should use it. Terms such as Schulentlassungsfeier [school leaving ceremony], Jugendweihe [youth consecration], Jugendappell [youth appeal], etc., are to be avoided. Schulentlassungsfeier is not appropriate because not all the youth are actually leaving school. Even the trade school pupils have three years of job training ahead of them, and those going to secondary school will study further, too. The term Jugendweihe has bad connotations because of its former use by the Marxists, and on worldview grounds we must avoid the term Weihen [consecration]. We do not consecrate or bless, but rather only give eloquent expression to an event, in this case the arrival of maturity. The ceremony involves all those in the year between 14 and 15, not only those who are not confirmed or do not take first communion. The party is not a sect, but rather it involves every citizen! The ceremony should be organized in a way that makes it a valuable experience for those who are not confirmed. And children who participate in religious ceremonies should sense that the party ceremony is the most genuine and most German. If possible, parents and children should be talked to in advance, in order to make them aware of the nature of our ceremony. But even without such preparation, the ceremony should be understandable and effective. The preparation of the ceremony is the responsibility of the local group leader, supported by the education leader. The Hitler Youth leader and school leaders should be informed of the nature of the ceremony so that they know what will happen and can support it. The schools can provide information about the children involved. Parents should receive a dignified announcement of the ceremony, and a request to have their children participate. The room for the ceremony should be as large as possible, and well-lit. It should have the movement's symbols, and fresh greens and flowers. The youth sit at the front of the room, their family members in the rear. The Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls will sit in uniform (see the picture). It is important that all participants be well-dressed. The high points of the ceremony are: The children should thank their parents and make their own affirmation of their coming tasks. Both elements are to be carefully prepared. The affirmation should not be made by an adult! The ceremony should consist of four parts. This allows for other texts to replace those suggested here, which cannot be given for reasons of space. Do not include too many poems. The suggestions here can sound more natural, particularly when read by the youth. The Course of the Ceremony Opening A fanfare, a march in with flags. Introduction to the ceremony A quotation from the Führer: "We want a hard generation that is strong, reliable, loyal obedient and decent, so that we do not need to be ashamed." (Spoken by a uniformed political leader, for example an S.A. Man, an SS Man, or a party leader.) Music: (a song) 1. HJ Speaker [Hitler Youth]: Young people stand here On the threshold of their lives. A brief drum roll. 2. HJ Speaker: We enter joyfully Through the open door. We face our fate courageously, For while fate defeats the cowardly, God helps the brave! Drum roll. 3. HJ Speaker: We the youth are the bridge From ancestors to grandchildren. A song "Now let the banners fly..." (First the tune is played. The words are available in the Schulungsbrief [another Nazi magazine], February 1938, p. 45.) The Meaning of the Ceremony Address: German youth, German parents! Germans have always found the transition from 14 to 15 an important moment. It marks the beginning of a new stage of life. It is true that the young person is not yet fully adult. But the body has completed the greater part of its growth. With this physical growth the young person becomes increasingly able to determine his own life. This ceremony marks the point at which boys and girls increasingly become men and women. As you become more mature, you must increasingly follow the laws and meet the duties of life. Until now you have been a child. If you misbehaved, you did not have to bear the responsibility. Your father or mother made good the damage and they forgave you. Now you will increasingly encounter people who will not forgive your bad behavior as your mother and father did. They will hold you responsible. If you have been well-behaved and did whatever your father and mother told you to do, you must realize that you will increasingly encounter situations in which your father and mother will no longer be able to help you. You will have to make your own decisions. If you leave school you will begin an apprenticeship, or if you continue school you will have a future occupation in mind. You will move from the Young People to the Hitler Youth or from the Young Girls to the League of German Girls. You will leave the circle in which you had become the oldest, and join a new one in which you will again be the youngest. You face something new in every direction. Whether in your apprenticeship or in further schooling, that is in your professional training, or in your personal lives, greater demands will be placed on you young men and women. How well you meet these demands will determine the remainder of your life. If you obey the laws of life you will succeed, and you will become useful men and diligent women. If you fail to meet life's demands, you will face a shipwreck. That is the meaning of this ceremony, of your transition. You must decide here between the good and the bad. Life is uncertain. Hard fate may strike some of you, perhaps even destroy you. We are defenseless against such blows of fate, but they are rare. In most cases where life does not go well, it is a matter of personal failure. Each person has his good and bad aspects. It is our will that determines whether the good or the bad wins. That is the meaning of this ceremony. Here, before yourselves and us all, before your people and your Führer, and before God Almighty, you will pledge that the good will win in you, and that you want to become decent German people. What is good, and what is bad? We say that the bad is harmful, the good useful. Never make the mistake of asking what is good for you. Only that is good which is gained through honest means and serves the people. Never forget when you begin your apprenticeship to learn how one earns his own bread, and that the bread you eat today as children of your parents, and that you shall later produce, is the bread of your people. Never forget that the camaraderie you will learn among your comrades is the camaraderie that the entire nation needs from you. Never forget, boys and girls, that you live today in a free and strong Germany, and that your future will be secure only if you preserve this spirit of community. Before Adolf Hitler, your parents and grandparents of the German community were divided into classes and groups, and Germany was defeated. Back then, someone who got his hands dirty by working honestly and industriously for his people was held in contempt by those who earned their money in other ways. German boys and girls, you must never again let Germany be divided into classes and groups, into parties and religious denominations. The community you had as Pimpfe [members of the youth group for young boys] or Young Girls you must also have as members of the Hitler Youth or the League of German Girls, and further on when you put on the uniform of the Labor Service, the army, the SA, the SS, the NSKK, or the NS Flying Corps. You must have it even later when you become a political leader or a member of the Women's League so that alongside your work or household you can carry on the work of Adolf Hitler, even when the day comes that the Führer is no longer with us. You must be comrades for your entire life, and must respect every citizen who works, or who as a soldier is ready to give his life for Germany, and you must yourself strive to become such a worker or soldier. The life before you is not a matter of good or bad behavior, or parental punishment, or cowardly behavior to avoid parental punishment, but rather it is a matter of proving yourself as a man or a woman. You will not have this strength if you do not have a living faith in God during your entire life. But it must be a faith that leads you to serve God through deeds, not words. It must be a faith that makes you consider yourself God's tool, called through your work, your struggle, your creation of new life, to serve the eternal maintenance of order, justice, and life itself in this world. You must never feel yourself a servant or slave of God, but rather a fighter for God. One gives a comrade the greatest joy when one gives him a weapon in the certainty that he will never use it against us, but rather use it to defend that which is holy to us all. One does not give a weapon to a fool! God gave us weapons. The creative strength in our hands with which we work, the creative strength in our minds, with which we learn and seek and research, the strength in our hearts and souls, with which we believe, the strengths with which we create new life, these are the weapons God has given humanity. We would be fools if we did not use these weapons to work, fight, create order, and maintain life, but rather served life ill because we were lazy, cowardly, disloyal, immoral. We would then be truly pitiable creatures before God! Were you like that, you would be ungrateful to the parents who raised you and educated you, who led you to come here under the flags of your people. You would be ungrateful to the teachers who taught you so much, and who helped you to begin to understand your duties. You would be ungrateful to your leaders in the Young People and the Hitler Youth who have helped you deal with some of the difficult questions young people face. At the least, out of gratitude to your parents, teachers, and comrades, you must work to become useful people in the future. We must here give parents, teachers and the leaders of these boys and girls our thanks. When these children were born, they carried in their blood the ability to become German boys and girls, and eventually German women and men. But when they were born, they could neither speak nor think, nor did they believe anything. We thank their German mothers, German fathers, German teachers, and the leaders of the Young People and Young Girls that they raised these children such that they are now mature enough to stand here before the flags of their people and make an affirmation to Germany. The methods of education and leadership they will experience in the coming years will be different than those of their childhood. You must know that you have a great responsibility also in the coming years to educate and lead these young people. Fulfill that responsibility as well as you have fulfilled those in the past. These words are also directed to the master who accepts these young boys or girls as apprentices, and to the leaders of the Labor Front and the army, who in the coming years will also be involved in the education of these young people. Boys and girls! If you have such teachers, leaders and comrades in the future, and use all your strength as well, the Führer's hopes for you will be fulfilled. You will become a hard, loyal, industrious and successful generation. We will not need to be ashamed of you before the past or the future generations of our people. This is the proud hope and certainty we can give you in this solemn hour, if the affirmation you will now give is not only spoken, but also realized. But we must also give this warning: If you do not stand together, but become disunited, if you are not loyal, but disloyal, if you do not work and are cowardly, you will fall into terrible chaos and Germany will collapse. God will have no home in Germany any longer. A song is sung (The tune is played through first). Loyalty stands Where We Stand... (See the Hoheitsträger, Issue IX/38, p. 20) The pledge of the youth: Speaker (one of the youth celebrating the event): We affirm: The German people has been created by the will of God. All those who fight for the life of our people, and those who died, Carried out the will of God. Their deeds are to us holy obligation All the boys and girls participating: This we believe. Speaker: We affirm that God gave us all our strength, In order to maintain the life of our people And defend it. It is therefore our holiest Duty to fight to our last breath Anything that threatens or endangers the life Of our people. God will decide Whether we live or die. Everyone present: This we pledge. Speaker: We want to be free from all selfishness. We want to be fighters for this Reich Named Germany, our home. We will never forget that we are German. Everyone present: That is what we want. Conclusion of the ceremony: The political leader: The pledge has been made. A new group of our people has joined our fighting and creative people's community. We are happy in the confidence this experience gave us in the eternal growth of our people. We conclude his pledge and this ceremony with a greeting to the Führer. Adolf Hitler, Sieg Heil! Singing of the National Anthem and the Horst-Wessel Song. The flags are carried out. * Here are two other versions of the ceremony. A Youth Ceremony in Dortmund The District Leader in Dortmund, party comrade Hesseldieck, gives us the following valuable ideas: The totality of education in the schools is not to be separated from the worldview education that became the party's responsibility after the seizure of power. We must claim and influence the totality of education. That requires our involvement at the critical transition points of the youth. As the youth leave school and assume their obligations to fight and work for the German people, the party must be involved, which means it becomes the duty of the respective political leader, the county leader, or the local group leader. For these reasons, I decided to hold school leaving ceremonies in the name of the party for all boys and girls finishing school. I delegated this responsibility for obvious reasons to the National Socialist Teacher's Federation. (The NS Teacher's Federation made all the preparations, and the ceremonies were conducted by the party's political leaders. The Editors.) The center of each ceremony, the pledge by the boys and girls, was entirely the responsibility of the political leader. All those completing middle, upper and advanced schools were gathered on one day. The ceremony took place in the large Dortmund film theater, the "Capitol." About 1800 youth participated. I myself led the pledge for the boys and girls. In other local groups, the ceremony was held in similar ways, led by the respective local group leader. In many cases, the youth received a picture of the Führer along with a quotation of National Socialist thought, or else the book Remember that you are a German. These ceremonies had a powerful effect on everyone, particularly on the youth. We also impressed the opponents of our worldview. That proves to me that this is the right way. "Ceremony of the Youth" in Segeberg County The county office in Segeberg (Bad Segeberg in Holstein) conducted a "Ceremony of the Youth" for the first time in 1938. Despite the brief period of preparation, it was a great success. Many parents who did not want to have their children confirmed came to us with the request to show them the way to their future. This was done in the form of a National Socialist ceremony. It was not a copy or substitute for some kind of religious ceremony, but rather something new. We wanted to show that National Socialism can create new forms that correspond to the greatness of our idea, and that are impressive for those participating. 55 children chose to participate from the local groups of Segeberg county. Since it was not possible to carry out a single ceremony given the distances, ceremonies were held by the local groups in Kaltenkirchen and Bad Segeberg. Rooms were decorated and all the necessary preparations were made. 26 children participated in the western part of the county, 29 in the eastern part. The success was almost surprising, since the preparations began only at the beginning of the year. There were no sufficiently large official meeting halls in Kaltenkirchen and Bad Segeberg. We therefore used the largest available private halls, halls in which many of our meetings were held during the struggle for power. Both halls were well decorated with greenery, flowers, symbols of the party, and flags. Both ceremonies followed the following plan: 1. Entrance of the flags with music. 2. The poem "Adolf Hitler" (Anne-Marie Koeppen). 3. The song "Holy Fatherland..." 4. Address by the district leader, party comrade Sach, Bad Segeberg. 5. Music. 7. The oath, and presentation of a book. 7. The song "Raise our flags...". 8. Sieg Heil and the National Anthem. 9. Exit of the flags. Each book included a page with a motto, and the following inscription: Presented on the day when you took on obligations for the life of your people. Bad Segeberg, 20 March 1939. Signed: Werner Stiehr, Kreisleiter, Member of the Reichstag. Signed: ...... (Signed by the respective local group leader.) Not only the members of the local group, but all the inhabitants of the town and its surroundings were invited. 700 people attended in Bad Segeberg, 600 in Kaltenkirchen. I stress that party groups did not order members to attend, but rather that attendance was entirely voluntary. I consider ordering people to attend in such situations unwise, since it gives an impression of compulsion that is not in keeping with the meaning of such a ceremony. Most of the attendees in Bad Segeberg, which has a population of 6600, were from the town itself, while many in Kaltenkirchen, which has 12,000 inhabitants, came from the surrounding areas. District Education Leader Otto Gubitz. Nazi Propaganda by Joseph Goebbels 1933-1945 This is a collection of English translations of Nazi propaganda material by Joseph Goebbels, part of a larger site on Nazi and East German propaganda. It includes many of his weekly articles for Das Reich, as well as a range of his speeches. Some of Goebbels's pre-1933 articles and speeches are available on the pre-1933 section of the German Propaganda Archive. Nazi articles on Joseph Goebbels "Dr. Goebbels and his Ministry": A 1934 article by Hans Fritzsche. Pictures of Goebbels speaking in 1935. "On the Art of Speaking to the World": An introduction by an aide to Goebbels's book Die Zeit ohne Beispiel. It presents the Propaganda Minister in a flattering light. Goebbels' speeches on the eve of the new year 31 December 1933: Goebbels looks back on Nazism's first year. 31 December 1938: Goebbels reviews 1938 and complains about complainers. 31 December 1939: Goebbels reviews 1939, and finds Germany innocent. 31 December 1940: Goebbels is optimistic... 31 December 1943: Despite the disasters of 1943, Goebbels predicts German victory. 31 December 1944: The end is in sight, but Goebbels is not willing to admit it. Goebbels's annual speeches on the eve of Hitler's birthday "Our Hitler" (1933) (1934): No speech on Hitler. Instead, Goebbels delivered a speech on the press. "Our Hitler" (1935) "Our Hitler" (1936) "Our Hitler" (1937): Available in Landmark Speeches of National Socialism. "Our Hitler" (1938) "Our Hitler" (1939) "Our Hitler" (1940) "Our Hitler" (1941) "Our Hitler" (1942) "Our Hitler" (1943) "Our Hitler" (1944) "Our Hitler" (1945) Miscellaneous Speeches "German Women:" Nazi views of women (March 1933). "Radio as the Eighth Great Power": On radio (18 August 1933). "The Racial Question and World Propaganda": Goebbels at the 1933 Nuremberg Rally. Goebbels on Propaganda: His speech at the 1934 Nuremberg Rally. "Communism with the Mask Off": His 1935 Nuremberg Rally Speech. "The Coming Europe": The Czechs must get used to German occupation (11 September 1940). "Youth and the War": The German youth are fortunate... (29 September 1940). "Christmas, 1941": Goebbels says Germans have a lot to be thankful for (24 December 1941). "Victory at Any Price": A speech in Vienna (13 March 1942). "Total War": The printed version of Goebbels's most famous speech (18 February 1943). "The Winter Crisis is Over": Goebbels remains confident of German victory (5 June 1943). "In the Front Ranks": A memorial meeting for the victims of Allied bombing raids (18 June 1943). "Immortal German Culture": Opening a wartime art exhibition (26 June 1943). "The Will of the Whole Nation": His speech after the assassination attempt on Hitler (26 July 1944). "The Festival of Strong Hearts": Goebbels's last Christmas Eve address (24 December 1944). "The New Age Will Belong to Us": New Year's Eve 1944 (31 December 1944). "We Will Not Surrender Our Claim to Life and Freedom": Near the end (28 February 1945). "This Is How We Will Defeat the Soviets": Temporary hope (10 March 1945). A selection of Goebbels's articles "The Miracle": Goebbels exults after Hitler's takeover (2 February 1933). "More Morality, Less Moralism": Goebbels wants freedom in the private sphere (27 January 1934). "The Battle of the Pharus Hall:" A 1927 battle in Berlin. Adolf Hitler as a speaker: Goebbels praises his master. "What Does America Really Want?": Goebbels is unhappy with the USA (21 January 1939). "The Coffee Drinkers": An attack on those who are dissatisfied (11 March 1939). "Great Days": Goebbels on the end of Czechoslovakia (18 March 1939). "The Morals of the Rich": Britain has no right to complain about Germany (25 March 1939). "Children with their Hands Chopped Off": On British propaganda (24 June 1939). "England's Guilt": Goebbels explains the reasons for World War II (Fall, 1939). "A Unique Age": Goebbels' first lead article for Das Reich (25 May 1940). "Missed Opportunities": On the invasion of France (2 June 1940). "Churchill's Lie Factory": Churchill, it seems, is guilty of the "big lie" (12 January 1941). "Winston Churchill": On Winston Churchill (2 February 1941). "How Not to Do It": Goebbels mocks English propaganda (23 April 1941). "The Veil Falls": The invasion of the Soviet Union had just begin (6 July 1941). "Mimicry": An attack on the Jews (20 July 1941). "The Door to a New Era": On foreign press criticism (28 September 1941). "The Matter of the Plague": Why Germans may not listen to the BBC (5 October 1941). "When or How?": Goebbels on the war situation (9 November 1941). "The Jews are Guilty": An attack on the Jews (16 November 1941). "The Pompous Giant": Why England will lose the war (23 November 1941). "Roosevelt Cross-examined" Goebbels on FDR (30 November 1941). "A Different World": The war after Pearl Harbor (21 December 1941). "What is Sacrifice": Encouraging the home front during a hard winter (28 December 1941). "The New Year": On the outlook for 1942 (4 January 1942). "The Good Companion": On German radio policy (1 March 1942). "Churchill's Trick": Goebbels is happy with Winston Churchill (1 March 1942). "A Word to All": Encouraging courtesy (8 March 1942). "An Open Discussion": Why food rations are being cut (29 March 1942). "The Paper War": On bureaucracy and complaining during war (12 April 1942). "Heroes and Film Heroes": Germans are better heroes than Americans (7 June 1942). "The Air War and the War of Nerves:" On British night bombing of Germany (14 June 1942). "The Tonnage War": Goebbels on the U-boats (21 June 1942). "The So-called Russian Soul": The Russian soul is of inferior quality (19 July 1942). "God's Country:": An unflattering portrait of the USA (9 August 1942). "Don't Be Too Fair": Germans must be taught to hate (6 September 1942). "What is at Stake": Encouraging determination to win the war (27 September 1942). "The Optics of War": Preparing the public for Stalingrad (24 January 1943). "The European Crisis": An anti-Semitic article (28 February 1943). "Where Do We Stand?": (2 May 1943). "The War and the Jews": Part of an anti-Semitic campaign (9 May 1943). "Driving Forces": The Jews are trying to fool the world (6 June 1943). "Does the Government Know about That?": Goebbels says he works hard (11 July 1943). "Morale as a Decisive Factor in War:" Germany deserves to win (7 August 1943). "The Realities of War:" The war situation is favorable for Germany (22 August 1943). "A Classic Example:" The fall of Mussolini (19 September 1943). "30 Articles of War for the German People:" Support the war effort (26 September 1943). "The New Year:" An optimistic look to the future (2 January 1944). "The Battle of Berlin:" Goebbels discusses Allied bombing (13 February 1944). "Why Are Things So Difficult for Us?": Germany's difficult situation (9 April 1944). "Life Goes On:" On Allied bombing, with a hint of the V-weapons (16 April 1944). "A Word about Enemy Air Terror": (27 May 1944). "The Background of the Invasion": A commentary on D-Day (18 June 1944). "The Question of Revenge": The V-1 rocket bomb (23 July 1944). "The Call of Duty": After the 20 July 1944 assassination attempt on Hitler (6 August 1944). "The Higher Law:" Germany will win because it is morally superior (24 September 1944). "The World Crisis": The other side has it just as bad (17 December 1944). "The Creator of the World's Misfortunes": The last major anti-Semitic essay (21 January 1945). "A People on the Defensive": Motivating Germans in the face of disaster (11 February 1945). "Our Chance": Goebbels argues that Germany can still win the war (18 February 1945). "The Year 2000": What will happen after Germany wins the war (25 February 1945). "Look Confidently to the Helmsman": Empty words of hope (4 March 1945). "History as a Teacher": Goebbels resorts to historical parallels (1 April 1945). "Fighters for the Eternal Reich": The Allies are near collapse (8 April 1945). "Risking One's Own Life": Goebbels is worried about Germans who surrender (15 April 1945). "Resistance at Any Price": Goebbels's final published article (22 April 1945). *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:6561b46e-1ff2-4ed0-b5ab-b19fbbe42131-16" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:6561b46e-1ff2-4ed0-b5ab-b19fbbe42131-16" data-testid= "conversation-turn-34" data-turn="assistant"> Adolf Hitler: Speeches, Articles, Proclamations and Major Documents (1920–1945) This timeline mirrors the format of the Joseph Goebbels archive, focusing on Hitler's speeches, writings, proclamations, and major political addresses. Early writings and speeches Early National Socialist speeches (1920–1923). Beer Hall Putsch speeches (1923). Landsberg Prison writings (1924). Mein Kampf, Volume I (1925). Mein Kampf, Volume II (1926). "Second Book" (written 1928; unpublished during Hitler's lifetime). Annual speeches 30 January 1933: Proclamation to the German Nation after becoming Chancellor. Annual Reichstag speeches (1933–1945). Annual Nuremberg Rally speeches (1933–1938). Annual New Year proclamations (1933–1945). Annual speeches on the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch (November 9). Major speeches before World War II 1933 Proclamation to the German Nation (1 February 1933). Speech supporting the Enabling Act (23 March 1933). First Nuremberg Rally address as Chancellor. 1934 Speech following the death of Paul von Hindenburg. Nuremberg Rally address. 1935 Speech announcing the Nuremberg Laws. Wehrmacht rearmament speeches. 1936 Rhineland remilitarization speech. Nuremberg Rally address. 1937 Nuremberg Rally address. 1938 Anschluss speeches. Sudetenland speeches. Munich period speeches. 1939 Reichstag speech (30 January). Military conference speech (22 August). Reichstag speech announcing the invasion of Poland (1 September). Peace Proposal speech following the Polish campaign (6 October). Major wartime speeches 1940 Speeches following victories in Western Europe. Reichstag address after the fall of France. 1941 Proclamation announcing the invasion of the Soviet Union (22 June). Reichstag speech declaring war on the United States (11 December). 1942 Annual Reichstag address. Wartime military speeches. 1943 Speeches following Stalingrad. Calls for continued resistance. 1944 Radio address following the July 20 assassination attempt. Final major public speeches. 1945 Final New Year's proclamation. Final Reichstag proclamation (30 January). Political Testament (29 April). Personal Testament (29 April). Final military orders. Death in Berlin (30 April 1945). Major books and documents Mein Kampf (1925–1926). Second Book (written 1928). Four-Year Plan directives. Führer Directives (1939–1945). Political Testament (1945). Personal Testament (1945). Selected themes in Hitler's speeches German nationalism. Versailles Treaty. Rearmament. Anti-communism. Anti-Semitism. Foreign policy. Lebensraum. National unity. Wartime propaganda. Total resistance. Final victory. War Propaganda: 1939-1945 Völkischer Beobachter front pages 1939-1945: Incomplete. Stukas Attack: A 1940 Nazi children's game. Do You Know That?: A 1940 parlor game on German history. Regaining German colonies in Africa: Optimism in 1941. German Foreign Office Press Releases: Three examples from 1941. Signal: A propaganda magazine circulated in 25 languages. Europe at Work in Germany: A 1943 book on foreign workers. Leaflets from D-Day: Nazi leaflets aimed at American soldiers. German wartime advertising: Examples from 1944. A Nazi Mother's Day card: 1944. The role of the Nazi Party in civil defense: Building party credibility in 1944. Victory or death: The text of a propaganda leaflet (1945). Mass Pamphlets of the War Years "War Library of the German Youth": Pamphlets issued 1940-1942. Altmark — Baralong: A 1940 anti-British pamphlet. A German Primer: A popular 1940 booklet on Nazi military virtues. How They Lie: A 1940 pamphlet accuses the Allies of inventing German atrocities. "Warning! Enemy Propaganda!": 1940 advice on enemy propaganda. Kleine Kriegshefte: Nazi pamphlets on the war from 1940-1941 International Ethnic Mush or United National States of Europe?: Robert Ley in 1941. The War Goal of World Plutocracy: A remarkable pamphlet (1941). Nazi soldiers' letters from Russia: Excerpts from letters. Not Empty Phrases, but Rather Clarity: A 1942 pamphlet on Nazi ideology. The Attack on Cologne: A 1942 pamphlet on British bombing. What Does Bolshevization Mean in Reality?: A spring 1943 pamphlet. Facts Speak for Victory: June 1943 speeches by Speer and Goebbels. The Secret of Japan's Strength: A 1943 Nazi booklet on Japan. Never!: A late -1944 pamphlet urging Germans to fight or die. War Reports The outbreak of WWII: From the Wehrmacht's biweekly. "German Torpedoes in Scapa Flow": Talks by Hans Fritzsche (1939). Three war articles from summer 1940: Confident and boastful. The fall of France: Material distributed in the United States in 1940. "Churchill Orders Destruction": A 1940 article on British bombing. "The Campaign in the East is Over!": Premature claims of victory over the USSR in October 1941. First Reaction to the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor (9 December 1941). The Battle of Midway: A great victory (11 June 1942). "That is Heroism!": A soldier destroys Soviet tanks (1943). Press Coverage of Stalingrad: Articles before and after the loss (1941-1943). Pictures from January 1943: A satirical commentary on the war. The Battle of Bougainville: Wildly inflated claims of Japanese victory (December 1943) The Battle of Monte Cassino: Explaining a lost battle in May 1944. Rome: Putting the best face on the loss of Rome in June 1944. The news in Berlin: A daily newspaper dated 5 October 1944. "The Big Lie": Helmut Sündermann on Allied lies. "The Hour of Testing": One week before Vienna falls (3 April 1945) Material from Das Schwarze Korps, the SS weekly Nazis vs. Superman: A 1940 article attacking Superman. "False Consideration": A 1943 article urging harsh treatment of complainers. "The Danger of Americanism": A 1944 discussion of "The American Century." "He is Victory!": A 1944 article on Hitler's birthday. Material from Das Reich: A widely circulated weekly "Why London is Burning": German gloating after nine days of bombing (September 1940). "The Delayed Invasion": On why England has yet to be invaded (September 1940). "The Uncertain Casualty List": On the missing at Stalingrad (February 1943). "The Invasion": On the prospects of an Allied landing (January 1944). "Unexpected Consequences": On the impact of Allied bombing. "First Results of the V-1": The first V-1s were launched just after D-Day. "The Kitschified Mass Soul": A 1944 discussion of American advertising. "Reality is Different": On the morale of American soldiers (December 1944). "Berlin, a Giant Hedgehog": Preparations for the final battle (March 1945). See also Goebbels's editorials from Das Reich.   Miscellaneous Propaganda "Concentration Camp": German kids at play (April 1933). The Cross of Christ and the Swastika: A 1934 pamphlet from the "German Christians." On Nazi radio: A 1934 chapter by Eugen Hadamovsky. Rearmament propaganda from 1935. The 1936 Nuremberg Rally: Translations from the official proceedings. The 1936 Gau Südhannover-Braunschweig rally: Nuremberg in miniature. The 1936 Nazi farmers rally: Agriculture for the Nazi cause. "Last Words": A collection of dying words of Nazis from a 1936 article. Nazi Economic Achievements: A brochure from 1936. The Great Anti-Bolshevist Exhibition: The program from the 1937 event. "With German Soldiers in Liberated Austria": The takeover of Austria in 1938. The Volkswagen: A model car to be built in a model city (1938). "Hail All-Germany!": Austrian fans of traditional costumes welcome Hitler (1938). "Memel is Free": From a 1939 book on Hitler's territorial gains. "The Victory of Faith": A 1939 article on worldviews. Berlin Television Schedule: What to watch in March 1939. The German house: Nazi views on how to build a house (1937). Nazi interior decoration: How should a Nazi home look inside (1939). Diary of an S. A. Leader: A 1939 propaganda book on the Storm Troopers. "The Soviet Paradise": A 1942 exhibition on the Soviet Union. Faith and Action: A popular 1938 Nazi "book of virtues." Nazi Economics: Party economic propaganda from 1938-1940. Germany and You: A Nazi magazine for English-speaking readers (1942). The Kampfzeit: Building Nazi myths Recollections of an early Nazi speaker: Taken from a book by Hans Hinkel. The Battle of the Pharus Hall: Goebbels describes a 1927 battle in Berlin. A meeting hall battle in Hamburg in 1930: Violence glorified. Comrade! Keep Moving: Nazi history in Bavaria, 1925-1930. How We Fought!: Nazi history in Frankfurt (M). Battle and Victory: Excerpts from a history of Gau Westfalen-Süd (1938). Forward with the Party!: Propaganda in Gau Westfalen-Nord. "Humorous" Nazi stories of the Kampfzeit: An effort at Nazi humor. Early Nazi speaking experiences: Stories by Walter Tießler. The Hitler Youth in Kiel: Its history from 1930-1933, published in 1938. Material on Hitler The Hitler No One Knows: First published in 1932, often reprinted. Caricatures of Hitler: Taken from an unusual 1933 German book. Adolf Hitler: Pictures from the Life of the Führer: Translations and pictures from 1936. Hitler's Paintings: Seven examples from 1908-1918. "The Life of the Führer": A chapter from the Nazi handbook for boys. "We Owe It to the Führer": A 1938 pamphlet on Hitler's deeds. The Song of the Faithful: Poems in praise of Adolf Hitler from 1938. Hitler on magazine covers: Illustrierter Beobachter 1938-1939. Hitler's 50th birthday: Photographs from 1939. Our Hitler: A 1940 booklet for conquered Alsace. That is Victory!: Letters in praise of Hitler from 1940. Hitler portraits: Nazi art portraying Hitler from the war years. Hitler's Obituary: From a 2 May 1945 German newspaper. See also speeches on Hitler's birthday in the Goebbels section. Material from Popular Nazi Magazines Illustrierter Beobachter 1934-1943: The Nazi illustrated weekly. The Frauen Warte: Issues of the Nazi women's magazine (1934-1945). Der Pimpf: Material from the Nazi magazine for boys, 1935-1944. Das deutsche Mädel: The Nazi magazine for girls (1936-1943). Der Schulungsbrief: 1942-44 material on political education. Educational Propaganda "Education in National Socialist Germany": On Nazi education. The Battle for Germany: A 1938 schoolbook on the Nazi Party. You and Your People: Nazi ideology for 14-year-olds (1940). Parts of a pre-war reading text: Propaganda for the very young. Parts of a 1936 reading text: More propaganda for the young. Parts of a 1941 reading text: More for the very young. A chapter from a 1942 biology text: Biology serves propaganda. A chapter from a 1943 geography text: Germany needed more land. Material about the United States A 1933 letter from a German propagandist to an American friend. Excerpts from The Land without a Heart, a 1942 book on the U.S. "America as a Perversion of European Culture": A 1942 pamphlet. "Europe and America": A 1942 analysis of America's racial makeup. Roosevelt Betrays America: A 1942 pamphlet by Robert Ley. "Americanization Would Mean the End of Europe": Late-1944 material. Material about England Inside England: Parts of a book about England. Robber England: Material from a 1941 illustrated book on England. Guernsey Evening Press: A 1942 issue from Nazi-occupied Guernsey.   Material from Nazi Literature for Propagandists Propaganda and National Power: Eugen Hadamovsky's 1933 book on propaganda. Hitler Youth training material: What leaders were to teach kids (1935-1944). The Political Poster: A 1938 book on effective posters. "The Political Work of the Radio Announcer": A 1939 essay on radio. Banned music: A list of what to avoid from 1939. Hitler speeches and foreign radio stations: Advice to party members (1939). Propagandizing women: Instructions from the Nazi women's group (August 1941). Anti-Bolshevist propaganda: Guidelines after Stalingrad (February 1943). On relations with foreigners: Interesting 1943 advice to party leaders. "The Officer and Enemy Propaganda": For officers training recruits. Late war advice to propagandists in Gau Sachsen: November 1944-April 1945. The Werewolf Movement: A call for building resistance (April 1945). Material on the Party Propaganda Apparatus Unser Wille und Weg: 35 articles from the monthly for propagandists. The propaganda campaign for winter 1937/38. Worldview training for girls: Hitler Youth material (1938). Propaganda in Gau Westfalen-Nord: Organizing propaganda in 1940. A Propaganda Primer: A 1942 handbook on propaganda. The propaganda system: What propagandists needed to know (1942). Propaganda plan for winter 1941/42: The problem of Russia. Propaganda plan for spring 1942: Marching orders for propagandists. Advice for county (Kreis) propaganda leaders: (March 1943). A propaganda business meeting: Motivating propagandists in 1943. Propaganda Newsletter: Instructing propagandists in January 1944. A propaganda campaign against spies: Be quiet! (1944). Advice on discussion meetings: Training party members in early 1944. Why victory is sure: Training material from mid-1944. Material on the Nazi Speaker System Speaker Express Information: 50 editions from 1941-1944. Speaker Information Material: Advice on various topics (1934-1944). Rudolf Hess and the war situation: Advice from May 1941. Leave the church: A 1941 memo ordering speakers to quit the church. The Eternal Battle for Truth: Anti-Semitic material from March 1944. Advice on Bolshevism: Speaker material from June 1944. Model speeches on motherhood, Allied bombing, and the duties of youth (1944-1945): Available in Landmark Speeches of National Socialism. Directives for Magazine Editors (Zeitschriften-Dienst & Wochendienst) A 1939 bibliography for Nazi propagandists. August 1939: Justifying the German-Soviet treaty June 1941: Dealing with the invasion of the Soviet Union September 1941: Preparing for a hard winter. October 1941 - January 1942: Guidelines on the invasion of the Soviet Union. October 1941: Placing German victory in historical context. September 1942: Victory at Stalingrad expected. February 1943: Just after the defeat at Stalingrad. May 1943: The anti-Semitic special edition. June 1944: Just after D-Day. August 1944: On anti-Semitic strategies. Miscellaneous items: Dated 1941-1944. Material on Nazi Ceremonies Using Christian holidays: Absorbing old holidays into Nazi culture (1937). Celebrating Christmas Nazi style (1939). Ceremonies for the youth: Nazi rites of passage from 1939. On party rituals: The introduction to a 1941 book for party officials. Nazi gravestones: How to bury a Nazi. Hitler's Birthday 1942: A model speech and other material. 9 November 1942: The holiest day on the Nazi calendar. 30 January 1943: Plans for Nazism's 10th anniversary. Pictures of "good" and "bad" stage decorations for Nazi ceremonies. Easter 1944: A suggested speech for party observances. Nazi commemoration of the war dead: A sample speech from 1944. Sample Christmas speech for wounded soldiers: What to say in December 1944. Links A bibliography of material on Nazi propaganda (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum). My research files: My Zotero library with research notes is available. Feel free to use the material. Appropriate credit appreciated. False Nazi Quotations: Things never said, but widely quoted. My unpublished essay on Nazi visual anti-Semitic rhetoric. FDR and Hitler: My talk on their rhetorical duel in the late 1930s, on CSPAN. Publications by Randall Bytwerk (Mostly related to German propaganda). ANNO, the Austrian project to digitize newspapers, is an astounding resource. The Berlin State Library has a variety of newspapers available. Walter Frentz Archive: A vast collection of photographs. The USA   "Americans believe that the United States of America became a separate country following its War of Independence against the British in 1783.   However, what happened was the setting up of the USA as a corporation subject to British maritime law. If you don't believe me then when you watch Obama speaking what do you think the gold border around your flag signifies?   So, if the US is just a corporation, not a country where's the evidence? Should we look for the Queen signing off acts of Parliament which automatically apply to the USA -   legislation.gov.uk/uksi… - it isn't the only one.   The one above was the Queen dictating social security legislation to the IRS. Still think you're independent."  IRS Forces U.S. Citizens To Pay A Percentage Of Their Taxes To The Queen Of The UK Deep State – Political Vel Craft     References USA History   UNITED STATES is a Corporation - There are Two Constitutions - Sovereignty    Federal Reserve - The Enemy of America    A history lesson for Americans. You're still British. – Patriots for Truth    bankruptcyofus.pdf    War and Emergency Powers       Media Release: The People Are the Enemy    "Since March 9, 1933, the United States has been in a state of declared national emergency Powers listed:    Seize property     Organize and control production     Seize commodities     Assign military forces abroad     Institute martial law     Seize transportation     Seize communications     Regulate private enterprise     Restrict travel     Control lives of citizens     (Source attributed in text: Senate Report 93-549)    14th Amendment | AntiCorruption Society      The IRS is not a US government agency.  It is an agency of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Diversified Metal Products v I.R.S et al.  CV-93-405E-EJE U.S.D.C.D.I., Public Law 94-564, Senate report 94-1148 pg. 5967, Reorganization Plan No. 26, Public Law 102-391).        The IMF (International Monetary Fund) is an agency of the U.N.     (Black's Law Dictionary 6th Ed. page 816)        The United States has NOT had a Treasury since 1921 (41 Stat. Ch 214 page 654)        The U.S. Treasury is now the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Presidential Documents Volume 24-No. 4 page 113, 22 U.S.C. 285-2887)        The United States does not have any employees because there is no longer a United States! No more reorganizations. After over 200 years of bankruptcy it is finally over. (Executive Order 12803)        The FCC, CIA, FBI, NASA and all of the other alphabet gangs were never  part of the U.S. government, even though the "U.S. Government" held stock in the agencies. (U.S. v Strang, 254 US491 Lewis v. US, 680 F.2nd, 1239)        Social Security Numbers are issued by the U.N. through the IMF (International Monetary Fund). The application for a Social Security Number is the SS5 Form. The Department of the Treasury (IMF) issues the SS5 forms and not the Social Security Administration. The new SS5 forms do not state who publishes them while the old form states they are "Department of the Treasury". (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111 Subpart B. 422.103 (b))        There are NO Judicial Courts in America and have not been since 1789. Judges do not enforce Statutes and Codes. Executive Administrators enforce Statutes and Codes. (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428, 1 Stat 138-178)        There have NOT been any judges in America since 1789. There have just been administrators.  (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428 1 Stat. 138-178)        According to GATT (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) you MUST have a Social Security number. (House Report (103-826)        New York City is defined in Federal Regulations as the United Nations. Rudolph Guiliani stated on C-Span that "New York City is the capital of the World." For once, he told the truth. (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111, subpart B 44.103 (b) (2) (2) )        Social Security is not insurance or a contract, nor is there a Trust Fund.  (Helvering v. Davis 301 US 619 Steward Co. v. Davis 301 US 548)        Your Social Security check comes directly from the IMF (International Monetary Fund), which is an agency of the United Nations. (It says "U.S. Department of Treasury" at the top left corner, which again is part of the U.N. as pointed out above)        You own NO property!! Slaves can't own property. Read carefully the Deed to the property you think is yours.  You are listed as a TENANT. (Senate Document 43, 73rd Congress 1st Session)        The most powerful court in America is NOT the United States Supreme court, but rather the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. (42 PA. C.S.A. 502)        The King of England financially backed both sides of the American Revolutionary War..   (Treaty of Versailles-July 16, 1782 Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80)        You CANNOT use the U.S. Constitution to defend yourself because you are NOT a party to it!  The U.S. Constitution applies to the CORPORATION OF THE UNITED STATES, a privately owned and operated corporation (headquartered out of Washington, DC) much like IBM (International Business Machines, Microsoft, et al) and NOT to the people of the sovereign Republic of the united States of America.  (Padelford Fay & Co. v The Mayor and Alderman of the City of Savannah 14 Georgia 438, 520)        America is a British Colony.  The United States is a corporation, not a land mass and it existed before the Revolutionary War and the British Troops did not leave until 1796 (Republica v. Sweers 1 Dallas 43, Treaty of Commerce 8 Stat 116, Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80, IRS Publication 6209, Articles of Association October 20, 1774)        Britain is owned by the Vatican. (Treaty of 1213)        The Pope can abolish any law in the United States (Elements of Ecclesiastical Law Vol. 1, 53-54)        A 1040 Form is for tribute paid to Britain (IRS Publication 6209)        The Pope claims to own the entire planet through the laws of conquest and discovery.  (Papal Bulls of 1495 & 1493)        The Pope has ordered the genocide and enslavement of millions of people.(Papal Bulls of 1455 & 1493)        The Pope's laws are obligatory on everyone.  (Bened. XIV., De Syn. Dioec, lib, ix, c. vii, n. 4. Prati, 1844 Syllabus Prop 28, 29, 44)        We are slaves and own absolutely nothing, NOT even what we think are our children.  (Tillman vs. Roberts 108 So. 62, Van Koten vs. Van Koten 154 N.E. 146, Senate Document 438 73rd Congress 1st Session, Wynehammer v. People 13 N.Y. REP 378, 481)        Military dictator George Washington divided up the States (Estates) in to Districts  (Messages and papers of the Presidents Volume 1 page 99 1828 Dictionary of Estate)      "The People" does NOT include you and me. (Barron vs. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore 32 U.S. 243)       It is NOT the duty of the police to protect you. Their job is to protect THE CORPORATION and arrest code breakers. (SAPP vs. Tallahassee, 348 So. 2nd. 363, REiff vs. City of Phila. 477 F. 1262, Lynch vs. NC Dept. of Justice 376 S.E. 2nd. 247)      Every thing in the "United States" is up for sale: bridges, roads, water, schools, hospitals, prisons, airports, etc, etc… Did anybody take time to check who bought Klamath Lake?? (Executive Order 12803)        "We are human capital" (Executive Order 13037)  The world cabal makes money off of the use of your signatures on mortgages, car loans, credit cards, your social security number, etc.         The U.N. – United Nations – has financed the operations of the United States government (the corporation of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) for over 50 years (U.S. Department of Treasury is part of the U.N. see above) and now owns every man, woman and child in America.       The U.N. also holds all of the land of America in Fee Simple.   The good news is we don't have to fulfill "our" fictitious obligations. You can discharge a fictitious obligation with another's fictitious obligation.     Source: Stop The Pirates: These documents are NOT secret! They ARE a matter of Public Record.     

"The German people lost the war. Did the people who financed it, profit from it, and survived it lose anything at all?" What happens to powerful people, powerful institutions, and powerful ideas when history tells us they disappeared? In this episode, we follow one of the most controversial trails in twentieth-century history. It begins with Nikola Tesla, his longtime assistant George Scherff, and a collection of photographs and claims attributed to Otto Skorzeny, Hitler's famous commando and bodyguard. From there, the story expands into Operation Paperclip, the Gehlen Organization, the Stasi, Prussia, the Iron Cross, the Bellamy salute, the rise of Nazi Germany, postwar intelligence networks, and the enduring question of what really became of the people who built the Third Reich. At the center of the discussion is one of the most debated claims in alternative history: Was George H. W. Bush actually George Scherff Jr., the son of Nikola Tesla's longtime associate George Scherff Sr.? For decades, researchers have pointed to photographs, unpublished manuscripts, interviews, and testimony that they believe support this extraordinary claim. Other historians reject the evidence entirely. Rather than asking listeners to accept or reject the story outright, this episode examines the evidence, the unanswered questions, and why the controversy continues to generate debate decades later. Along the way, we separate documented history from speculation wherever possible. We examine the documented origins of Operation Paperclip, the Gehlen intelligence network, American eugenics, the Bellamy salute, the evolution of the Nazi salute, Prussian military traditions, the Iron Cross, the Order of the German Eagle, the influence of Prussian military organization on the modern U.S. Army, and the remarkable continuity of symbols that survived the collapse of empires, monarchies, and political systems. The discussion also explores how military traditions, medals, symbols, and institutions often outlive the governments that created them. The Iron Cross began under the Prussian monarchy in 1813, survived the German Empire, was awarded to Adolf Hitler during the First World War, and was revived by Nazi Germany in 1939. Likewise, military drill, ceremony, and organization developed in Prussia would later influence armies around the world, including the United States. Following these threads reveals surprising historical connections that are often overlooked. Finally, we examine a series of controversial claims involving Otto Skorzeny, Martin Bormann, Nikola Tesla, Antarctica, postwar Nazi escape networks, and the so-called Fourth Reich. Some of these subjects rest on documented historical events. Others remain disputed, speculative, or impossible to independently verify. Rather than presenting speculation as fact, the purpose of this episode is to examine why these stories exist, what evidence is offered in support of them, and why they continue to fascinate researchers more than eighty years after the end of World War II. Whether viewed as historical investigation, intelligence history, or alternative history, the larger question remains the same: When a powerful political, military, financial, or intelligence system appears to collapse, does it truly disappear—or does it simply change shape? Music:  Elvis Presley - (You're The) Devil in Disguise (Official Audio) This Discovery in Morocco Will Transform Geopolitics If they are on the screen, likely on the team - 'I warned about Chomsky but I was ignored' A Predatory State | Palestinian Feminist Collective Report Moor Hall Studios Part X   Walt Disney as Hitler [PDF] [EPUB] Secret and Suppressed: Banned Ideas and Hidden History Download Martin Bormann - Nazi in Exile | Paul Manning | download on Z-Library The Transmission of Electric Energy Without Wires | Tesla Universe The Revelations of Otto Skorzeny, Part 1 (Martin Bormann: Reichsleiter in Exile & American Retiree) by Ken Adachi July 2, 2007 The Revelations of Otto Skorzeny, Part 2: The Family That Preys Together...Stays Together (August 24, 2007) The Tunguska Blast: Tesla's Death Ray | The Unredacted Tesla Wireless and the Tunguska Explosion     ANTENTOP- 01- 2003, # 001 Meet the Scherffs - Debt to Success System - Debt to Success System Hitler's 1945 Suicide and Death Were Faked (by Ken Adachi) Nikola Tesla's Free Energy: Hidden Truths & the Systems That Suppressed It    The Omega Project to Bring In the Fourth Reich and the New World Order Did US Navy battle UFOs protecting Nazi Antarctic sanctuary in 1947? – Exopolitics Ken Adachi - George H.W. Bush Was a Nazi Agent (I) - henrymakow.com Ken Adachi - GHW Bush was Secret Nazi -2 - henrymakow.com How Was The CIA Formed? By absorbing the Nazi war criminal infrastructure – Lissa's Humane Life: Exposing a Nation of Traitors… Human Rights be Damned [PDF] [EPUB] My Inventions: The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla Download Deathbed Confessions~Photos Support Claims that George H. Scherf(f), Jr., Was the 41st U.S. President by Don Nicoloff (April 5, 2007) Nikola Tesla's Free Energy: Unraveling His Greatest Secret | by Vertrose | Medium Meet the Scherffs - Debt to Success System - Debt to Success System Bush Family Nazi Background and The Murder of Nikola Tesla : Alexander Putney : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Nikola Tesla Was Murdered by Otto Skorzeny? — Secret History — Sott.net The Omega Project to Bring In the Fourth Reich and the New World OrderNikola Tesla: Father of Free Energy – The Millennium Report Skull and Bones: The disgusting initiation ceremonies at the heart of the American Establishment — Secret History — Sott.net The Revelations of Otto Skorzeny, Part 1 (Martin Bormann: Reichsleiter in Exile & American Retiree) by Ken Adachi July 2, 2007 The Revelations of Otto Skorzeny, Part 2: The Family That Preys Together...Stays Together (August 24, 2007) Hitler's 1945 Suicide and Death Were Faked (by Ken Adachi) Homosexuality, Hitler, and "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" Do you have a psychopath in your life?  The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life   Download Pods here:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life In 1998, 29 year old Eric Berman of Florida began dating a local girl whose 6'- 4" ninety year old father possessed "the largest hands I'd ever shaken," he said. Over time, "Big Ed," as he was known locally, revealed to the younger man that his real name was Otto Skorzeny, fame, personal bodyguard to Adolf Hitler, and subsequent life-long CIA operative. But that was just the beginning. In the months prior to Skorzeny's death in December of 1999, Skorzeny revealed to Berman some of the most mind boggling information ever made available concerning the whereabouts and activities of major personalities of the Third Reich who were either declared dead by historians or otherwise reported to have been living in undisclosed locations abroad . Skorzeny's lifelong circle of  intimate associates-many living in the United States- included Martin Bormann, Josef Mengele, Alois Brunner, Walter Rauff, and Reinhard Gehlen. An even more surprising revelation from Skorzeny, however, involved two domestic Nazis operatives, both well known to the American public: Prescott Sheldon Bush and his "son", George Herbert Walker Bush, the 41st President of the United States. To buttress his story, Skorzeny produced a shoebox filled with over one hundred photographs spanning a period of more than sixty years and gave them to Berman. The photos were of the usual family poses taken at weddings, anniversaries, holidays, or family reunions in the decades between the 1930's and the 1990's, but what made these photos highly extraordinary was the identity of the individuals seen within those photographs. The shoebox photos show Otto Skorzeny posing with the above named Third Reich personalities, along with additional photographs showing Skorzeny posing with Prescott Bush, his wife, Dorothy Walker Bush, and their son, George Herbert Walker Bush. To say that Berman was in the "right place, at the right time" and was handed what may turn out to be the biggest story to ever come down the pike, is the understatement of the century. Following Skorzeny's death on December 31, 1999, Berman gathered additional information about Skorzeny's Nazi cohorts and put the entire story -together with 60 or 70 of Skorzeny's shoe box photos- into a copyrighted unpublished manuscript called The Bush Connection. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:dd6107de-1942-4d90-8d4f-1991b5af0b06-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:dd6107de-1942-4d90-8d4f-1991b5af0b06-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-turn="assistant"> Timeline: The Bellamy Salute, "Heil Hitler," and the Nazi Salute April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865 The American Civil War. c. 1870–1900 The Gilded Age in the United States. 1892 (during the Gilded Age) Francis Bellamy introduces the Bellamy salute in American schools along with the Pledge of Allegiance. The Rise of "Heil Hitler" and the Nazi Salute Early 1920s Members of the Nazi Party began using "Heil Hitler!" as a party greeting. It was not yet used by the general public. 1922 (30 years after the Bellamy salute) Benito Mussolini adopts the Fascist salute in Italy. 1923 During the Beer Hall Putsch, supporters of Adolf Hitler were already using the greeting "Heil Hitler!" and the raised-arm salute. Late 1920s The greeting became standard within Nazi Party meetings, rallies, and among party members. Hitler Comes to Power January 30, 1933 Hitler became Chancellor of Germany. 1933 (41 years after the Bellamy salute began) Hitler adopts the Nazi salute after taking power. 1933–1934 "Heil Hitler!" rapidly spread throughout government offices, schools, businesses, and public life. Civil servants were expected to use it. After August 1934 Following the death of Paul von Hindenburg, Hitler combined the offices of president and chancellor, becoming Germany's sole leader ("Führer"). From this point, the greeting became effectively compulsory in most public settings. The United States Continues Using the Bellamy Salute 1933–1941 Americans continued using the Bellamy salute despite the Nazis adopting a similar-looking gesture. December 7, 1941 The Attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II. Congress Changes the American Salute June 22, 1942 Congress first codified the Flag Code, but it still included a version of the Bellamy salute. December 22, 1942 Exactly six months later, Congress amended the law and eliminated the Bellamy salute altogether, requiring the right hand over the heart instead. Why the Bellamy Salute Was Changed Before World War II, Americans viewed the Bellamy salute as simply the salute that accompanied the Pledge of Allegiance. It had been used for 50 years. By 1942, the United States was at war with both Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Newspapers, newsreels, and magazines were filled with images of Hitler, Nazi rallies, and the Hitler salute. The visual similarity had become impossible to ignore. American schoolchildren were making a gesture that looked almost identical to the salute of the nation's enemies. Congress did not publish a lengthy explanation saying, "We're changing this because of Hitler." However, historians generally agree that the reason was obvious: to eliminate confusion and avoid any resemblance to the Fascist and Nazi salute. The timing is notable: June 22, 1942 — Congress codifies the Flag Code while still including the Bellamy salute. December 22, 1942 — Six months later, Congress amends the law, replacing the Bellamy salute with the hand-over-heart. That six-month interval suggests lawmakers recognized the problem after the initial law was passed, or that concern over the resemblance became strong enough during wartime to warrant an amendment. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:dd6107de-1942-4d90-8d4f-1991b5af0b06-6" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:dd6107de-1942-4d90-8d4f-1991b5af0b06-6" data-testid= "conversation-turn-14" data-turn="assistant"> Timeline: The Iron Cross 1813 King Frederick William III establishes the Iron Cross during the Napoleonic Wars. 1813–1815 The first members of the House of Romanov and the House of Habsburg-Lorraine receive the Iron Cross while fighting alongside Prussia against Napoleon. House of Hohenzollern The House of Hohenzollern rules Prussia and later the German Empire (1871–1918). 1870 The Iron Cross is reissued during the Franco-Prussian War. 1914 Kaiser Wilhelm II reissues the Iron Cross for World War I. 1914–1918 Additional members of the Romanov and Habsburg dynasties receive the Iron Cross during World War I. Habsburg recipients were allies of Germany through Austria-Hungary. Some Russian recipients received the decoration before Germany and Russia became enemies in the war. 1918 Adolf Hitler receives the Iron Cross, First Class, as a soldier in the German Army. 1939 After taking power, Hitler revives the Iron Cross for World War II, adding the swastika to the center of the medal During the 19th century and World War I Some Americans received the Prussian/German Iron Cross, generally because they were serving with or attached to German forces, or because they were civilians recognized by Germany. These were rare cases, not U.S. Army awards. White Maltese-style cross with gold German eagles between the arms. A black swastika in the center medallion. The higher grades included a large eight-pointed silver breast star, which is why some recipients were described as receiving the "Order of the German Eagle with Star." It came in several classes, from lower grades up to the Grand Cross. One famous American connection is: Charles Lindbergh received the Order of the German Eagle from Nazi Germany in 1938. This was not the Iron Cross. It was a diplomatic decoration presented by the German government to prominent foreigners. His acceptance of it later became highly controversial in the United States. There were also German-Americans who had served in the Imperial German Army before immigrating to the United States. Some had earned the Iron Cross while they were German soldiers, then later became American citizens. That's different from an American being awarded it for U.S. military service. So the short answer is: 1813–1918: Yes, a small number of Americans received the Iron Cross under special circumstances. 1939–1945: No known U.S. military personnel were awarded the Nazi Iron Cross as American servicemen. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:dd6107de-1942-4d90-8d4f-1991b5af0b06-22" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:dd6107de-1942-4d90-8d4f-1991b5af0b06-22" data-testid= "conversation-turn-46" data-turn="assistant"> Iron Cross Order of the German Eagle Military decoration Diplomatic/civilian decoration Originated in 1813 under Prussia Created in 1937 by Nazi Germany Awarded for military merit Awarded to foreign civilians, diplomats, industrialists, and other prominent figures Worn by German soldiers Presented to selected foreign recipients Among the best-known American recipients were: Charles Lindbergh – Order of the German Eagle with Star (1938). Henry Ford – Grand Cross of the German Eagle (1938). Thomas J. Watson – Order of the German Eagle (1937; returned it in 1940). James D. Mooney – Order of the German Eagle, First Class (1938). Ancient Egypt (c. 3000 BC onward) Egypt did not primarily use the eagle as its royal symbol. The dominant bird was the falcon, representing the god Horus. Falcon = kingship, divine protection, the pharaoh. Another common symbol was the vulture, representing the goddess Nekhbet. Modern people sometimes call these "eagles," but Egypt's principal royal bird was the falcon. Ancient Rome (from 107 BC) The eagle became one of history's most influential military symbols under the Marian Reforms. Each Roman legion carried an Aquila (eagle standard). Losing the eagle in battle was considered a national disgrace. The eagle came to represent military strength, imperial authority, and victory. This Roman use influenced many later states. Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire popularized the double-headed eagle, symbolizing authority looking East and West. That emblem later spread to Russia, the Balkans, and Central Europe. Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire adopted the double-headed eagle as an imperial symbol. Prussia and Germany The House of Hohenzollern used the Prussian Eagle as its emblem. Later: Kingdom of Prussia German Empire Weimar Germany Nazi Germany (modified with a swastika) Modern Germany (without the swastika) ...all used versions of the eagle. United States The Great Seal of the United States (1782) adopted the bald eagle, chosen as a native North American bird representing independence and strength. While it is an American species, using an eagle as a symbol of state authority also fit within a long European heraldic tradition that had itself drawn heavily from Rome. Horus  Horus is one of the most important deities in ancient Egyptian religion, commonly depicted as a falcon or as a man with a falcon's head. He was associated with kingship, the sky, divine protection, and the legitimacy of royal rule, making him central to Egyptian religious and political life for thousands of years.  Ancient Egypt — The Falcon  The Egyptians chose the falcon, especially the god Horus, because it fit the environment and their beliefs.  Falcons are common along the Nile.   They fly extremely high and have exceptional eyesight.   They were seen as "watching over" the land.   Horus became the protector of the pharaoh, so the falcon symbolized kingship and divine authority.   Ancient Rome — The Eagle  The Romans chose the eagle because it projected military and imperial power. Eagles are larger and more imposing. They soar high and were associated with Jupiter, king of the Roman gods. The Roman Aquila (eagle standard) became the sacred emblem of each legion.   To a Roman soldier, the eagle represented the state itself.  Arabia — Falcons  In the Arabian Peninsula, falcons became central for a different reason.  Falconry was a practical survival skill.  Falcons were trained to hunt birds and small game in the desert.   Owning and training a falcon required skill, time, and wealth.   Over centuries, the falcon became a symbol of nobility, heritage, patience, and mastery.   Today, countries such as the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia still celebrate falconry as part of their cultural identity. Falcons are highly prized, and some are worth tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars.  Egypt: The falcon was sacred because of Horus. Pharaohs were often regarded as the earthly manifestation of Horus, so the falcon represented divine kingship and protection. Rome: The eagle became associated with Jupiter and, more importantly, with the Roman legions. The eagle evolved into the emblem of imperial authority. Arabia: The falcon survived as both a practical hunting bird and a symbol of nobility and prestige. One way to think about it is: Falcon = the king. Eagle = the empire. THE BIRTH OF "DEATH RAYS" Was the Tunguska Event caused by a secret test of a weapon too terrible to describe? The French ship Iena blew up in 1907. Electrical experts were sought by the press for an explanation. Many thought the explosion was caused by an electrical spark and the discussion was about the origin of the ignition. Lee DeForest, inventor of the Audion vacuum tube adopted by many radio broadcasters, pointed out that Nikola Tesla had experimented with a "dirigible torpedo" capable of delivering such destructive power to a ship through remote control He noted also that Tesla claimed the same technology used for remotely controlling vehicles also could project an electrical wave of "sufficient intensity to cause a spark in a ship's magazine and explode it." It was in the Spring of 1924, however, that the time seemed best for "death rays," for that year many newspapers carried several stories about the invention of such rays in different parts of the world. Harry Grindel-Matthews of London lead the contenders in this early Star Wars race. The New York Times of May 21st had this report: Paris, May 20 — If confidence of Grindell Mathew (sic), inventor of the so-called "diabolical ray:" in his discovery is justified it may become possible to put the whole of an enemy army out of action, destroy any force of airplanes attacking a city or paralyze any fleet venturing within a certain distance of the coast by invisible rays. Grindell-Matthews stated that his destructive rays would operate over a distance of four miles and that the maximum distance for this type of weapon would be seven or eight miles. "Tests have been reported where the ray has been used to stop the operation of automobiles by arresting the action of the magnets, and a quantity of gunpowder is said to have been exploded by playing the beams on it from a distance of thirty-six feet. Grindel-Matthews also was able to electrocute mice, shrivel plants, and light the wick of an oil lamp from the same distance away. Sensing something of importance, the New York Times copyrighted its story on May 28th on a ray weapon developed by the Soviets. The story opened: News has leaked out from the communist circles in Moscow that behind Trotsky's recent war-like utterance lies an electromagnetic invention, by a Russian engineer named Grammachikoff, for destroying airplanes. Tests of the destructive ray, the Times continued, had begun the previous August with the aid of German technical experts. A large scale demonstration at Podosinsky Aerodome near Moscow was so successful that the revolutionary Military Council and the Political Bureau decided to fund enough electronic anti-aircraft stations to protect sensitive areas of Russia. Similar, but more powerful, stations were to be constructed to disable the electrical mechanisms of warships. The Commander of the Soviet Air Services, Rosenholtz, was so overwhelmed by the ray weapon demonstration that he proposed "to curtail the activity of the air fleet, because the invention rendered a large air fleet unnecessary for the purpose of defense." TESLA ENTERS THE PICTURE Picking up the death ray stories on the wire services on the other side of the world, the Colorado Springs Gazette ran a local interest item on May 30th. With the headline: "Tesla Discovered 'Death Ray' in Experiments He Made Here," the story recounted, with a feeling of local pride, the inventor's 1899 researches financed by John Jacob Astor. Tesla's Colorado Springs tests were well remembered by local residents. With a 200-foot pole topped by a large copper sphere rising above his laboratory he generated potentials that discharged lightning bolts up to 135 feet long. Thunder from the released energy could be heard 15 miles away in Cripple Creek. People walking along the streets were amazed to see sparks jumping between their feet and the ground, and flames of electricity would spring from a tap when anyone turned them on for a drink of water. Light bulbs within 100-feet of the experimental tower glowed when they were turned off. Horses at the livery stable received shocks through their metal shoes and bolted from the stalls. Even insects were affected: butterflies became electrified and "helplessly swirled in circles — their wings spouting blue halos of 'St. Elmo's Fire.'" The most pronounced effect, and the one that captured the attention of death ray inventors, occurred at the Colorado Springs Electric company generating station. One day while Tesla was conducting a high power test, the crackling from inside the laboratory suddenly stopped. Bursting into the lab, Tesla demanded to know why his assistant had disconnected the coil. The assistant protested that he had not done anything. The power from the city's generator, the assistant said, must have quit. When the angry Tesla telephoned the power company he received an equally angry reply that the electric company had not cut the power, but that Tesla's experiment had destroyed the generator! The electric company had not cut the power to the laboratory — Tesla's experiment had destroyed the power company's generator! The inventor explained to The Electrical Experimenter, in August of 1917, what had happened. While running his transmitter at a power level of "several hundred kilowatts," high frequency currents were set up in the electric company's generators. These powerful currents "caused heavy sparks to jump through the windings and destroy the insulation. When the insulation failed, the generator shorted out and was destroyed. In 1935 he elaborated on the destructive potential of his transmitter in the February issue of Liberty magazine: My invention requires a large plant, but once it is established will be possible to destroy anything, men or machines, approaching within a radius of 200 miles. He went on to make a distinction between his invention and those brought forward by others. He claimed that his device did not use any so-called "death rays" because such radiation cannot be produced in large amounts and rapidly becomes weaker over distance. Here, he likely had in mind a Grindel-Matthews type of device which, according to contemporary reports, used a powerful ultra-violet beam to make the air conducting so that high energy current could be directed to the target. The range of an ultra-violet searchlight would be much less than what Tesla was claiming. As he put it: "all the energy of New York City (approximately two million horsepower [1.5 billion watts]) transformed into rays and projected twenty miles, would not kill a human being." On the contrary, he said: My apparatus projects particles which may be relatively large or of microscopic dimensions, enabling us to convey to a small area at a great distance trillions of times more energy than is possible with rays of any kind. Many thousands of horsepower can be thus transmitted by a stream thinner than a hair, so that nothing can resist. Apparently what Tesla had in mind with this defensive system was a large scale version of his Colorado Springs lightning bolt machine. As airplanes or ships entered the electric field of his charged tower they would set up a conducting path for a stream of high energy particles that would destroy the intruder's electrical system. A drawback to having giant Tesla transmitters poised to shoot bolts of lightning at an enemy approaching the coasts is that they would have to be located in an uninhabited area equal to its circle of protection. Anyone stepping into the defensive zone of the coils would be sensed as an intruder and struck down. Today, with the development of oil drilling platforms, this disadvantage might be overcome by locating the lightning defensive system at sea. MORE DESTRUCTIVE THAN A DEATH RAY As ominous as death ray and beam weapon technology may be for the future, there is another, more destructive, weapon system alluded to in Tesla's writings. When Tesla realized, as he pointed out in the 1900 Century article, "The Problem of Increasing Human Energy," that economic forces would not allow the development of a new type of electrical generator able to supply power without burning fuel, he "was led to recognize [that] the transmission of electrical energy to any distance through the media as by far the best solution of the great problem of harnessing the sun's energy for the use of man." His idea was that relatively few generating plants located near waterfalls would supply his very high energy transmitters, which, in turn, would send power through the earth to be picked up wherever it was needed. The plan would require several of his transmitters to rhythmically pump huge amounts of electricity into the earth at pressures on the order of 100 million volts. The earth would become like a huge ball inflated to a great electrical potential, but pulsing to Tesla's imposed beat. Receiving energy from this high pressure reservoir only would require a person to put a rod into the ground and connect it to a receiver operating in unison with the earth's electrical motion. As Tesla described it, "the entire apparatus for lighting the average country dwelling will contain no moving parts whatever and could be readily carried about in a small valise." The difference between a current that can be used to run, say, a sewing machine and a current used as a method of destruction, is a matter of timing. If the amount of electricity used to run a sewing machine for an hour was released in a millionth of a second it would have a very different — and negative — effect on the sewing machine. Tesla said his transmitter could produce 100 million volts of pressure with currents up to 1,000 amperes, which is a power level of 100 billion watts. If it was resonating at a radio frequency of 2 megahertz, then the energy released during one period of its oscillation would be 100,000,000,000,000,000 Joules of energy, or roughly the amount of energy released by the explosion of 10 megatons of TNT. Such a transmitter would be capable of projecting the energy of a nuclear warhead by radio. Any location in the world could be vaporized at the speed of light. Not unexpectedly, many scientists doubted the technical feasibility of Tesla's wireless power transmission scheme for commercial or military purposes. The secret of through-the-earth broadcast power was found not in the theories of electrical engineering, but in the realm of high energy physics. HOW DOES IT WORK? In 1976, Dr. Andrija Puharich was the first to point out that Tesla's power transmission system could not be explained by the laws of classical electrodynamics, but rather in terms of relativistic transformations in high energy fields. He noted that according to Dirac's theory, when an electron encounters an oppositely charged particle, a positron, the two particles annihilate each other. Because energy can neither be destroyed nor created, the energy of the two destroyed particles are transformed into an electromagnet wave. The opposite, of course, holds true. If there is a strong enough electric field, two opposite charges of electricity are formed where there was originally no charge at all. This type of transformation usually takes place near the intense field of an atomic nucleus, but it can also manifest without the aid of a nuclear catalyst if an electric field has enough energy. Puharich's involved mathematical treatment demonstrated that power levels in a Tesla transmitter were strong enough to cause such "pair production." The mechanism of pair production offers a very attractive explanation for the ground transmission of power. Ordinary electrical currents do not travel far through the earth. Dirt has a high resistance to electricity and quickly turns currents into heat energy that is wasted. With the pair production method, electricity can be moved from one point to another without really having to push the physical particle through the earth — the transmitting source would create a strong field and a particle would be created at the receiver. If the sending of currents through the earth is possible from the viewpoint of modern physics, the question remains of whether Tesla actually demonstrated the weapons application of his power transmitter or whether it remained an unrealized plan on the part of the inventor. Circumstantial evidence points to there having been a test of this weapon. These clues are found in the chronology of Tesla's work: and financial fortunes between 1900 and 1915. A BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF TESLA'S WORK, 1900-1915 1900: Tesla returned from Colorado Springs after a series of important tests of wireless power transmission. It was during these tests that his magnifying transmitter sent out waves of energy causing the destruction of the power company's generator. He received $150,000 from J. Pierpont Morgan to build a radio transmitter for signaling Europe. With the first portion of the money he obtained 200 acres of land at Shoreham, Long Island and built an enormous tower 187 feet tall topped with a 55 ton, 68-foot metal dome. He called the research site "Wardenclyffe." As Tesla was just getting started, investors were rushing to buy stock offered by the Marconi company. Supporters of the Marconi company included Tesla's old adversary, Thomas Edison. Tesla revealed that his purpose was the wireless transmission of power to any point on the planet. — J.P. Morgan was uninterested. On December 12th, Marconi sent the first transatlantic signal, the letter "S," from Cornwall, England to Newfoundland. He did this with, as the financiers noted, equipment much less costly than that envisioned by Tesla. 1902: Marconi is being hailed as a hero around the world while Tesla is seen as a shirker by the public for ignoring a call to jury duty in a murder case (he was excused from duty because of his opposition to the death penalty). 1903: Morgan sent the balance of the $150,000, but it would not cover the outstanding balance Tesla owed on the Wardenclyffe construction. To encourage a larger investment in the face of Marconi's success, Tesla revealed to Morgan his real purpose was not just to send radio signals but the wireless transmission of power to any point on the planet. Morgan was uninterested and declined further funding. A financial panic that Fall put an end to Tesla's hopes for financing by Morgan or other wealthy industrialists. This left Tesla without money even to buy the coal to fire the transmitter's electrical generators. 1904: In an article, Tesla writes for the Electrical World, "The Transmission of Electrical Energy Without Wires," Tesla notes that the globe, even with its great size, responds to electrical currents like a small metal ball. Wardenclyffe is declared complete, but the Colorado Springs power company sues for electricity used at the Colorado experimental station. Tesla's Colorado laboratory is torn down and is sold for lumber to pay the $180 judgment; his electrical equipment is put in storage. 1905: Electrotherapeutic coils are manufactured at Wardenclyffe for hospitals and researchers to help pay bills. Tesla is sued by his lawyer for non-payment of a loan. In an article, Tesla comments on Peary's expedition to the North Pole and tells of his (Tesla's) plans for energy transmission to any central point on the ground. Tesla is sued by C.J. Duffner, a caretaker at the experimental station in Colorado Springs, for wages. 1906: "Left Property Here; Skips; Sheriff's Sale," was the headline in the Colorado Springs Gazette for March 6th. Tesla's electrical equipment is sold to pay the judgment of $928.57. George Westinghouse, who bought Tesla's patents for alternating current motors and generators in the 1880s, turns down the inventor's power transmission proposal. Workers gradually stop coming to the Wardenclyffe laboratory when there are no funds to pay them.  Source: The Death Ray of Nikola Tesla | Tesla Universe 1907: When commenting on the destruction of the French ship lena, Tesla notes in a letter to the New York Times that he has built and tested remotely controlled torpedoes, but that electrical waves would be more destructive. "As to projecting wave energy to any particular region of the globe…this can be done by my devices." Further, he claimed that "the spot at which the desired effect is to be produced can be calculated very closely, assuming the accepted terrestrial measurements to be correct." 1908: Tesla repeated the idea of destruction by electrical waves to the newspaper on April 21st. His letter to the editor stated, "When I spoke of future warfare I meant that it should be conducted by direct application of electrical waves without the use of aerial engines or other implements of destruction." He added, "This is not a dream. Even now wireless power plants could be constructed by which any region of the globe might be rendered uninhabitable without subjecting the population of other parts to serious danger or inconvenience." 1915: Again, in another letter to the editor Tesla stated, "It is perfectly practical to transmit electrical energy without wires and produce destructive effects at a distance. I have already constructed a wireless transmitter which makes this possible…When unavoidable, the [transmitter) (sic) may be used to destroy property and life." BREAKDOWN? Important to this chronology is the state of Tesla's mental health. One researcher, Marc J. Seifer, a psychologist, believes Tesla suffered a nervous breakdown catalyzed by the death of one the partners in the Tesla Electric Company and the shooting of Stanford White, the noted architect, who had designed Wardenclyffe. Seifer places this in 1906 and cites as evidence a letter from George Scherff, Tesla's secretary: Wardenclyffe, 4/10/1906 Dear Mr. Tesla: I have received your letter and am very glad to know you are vanquishing your illness. I have scarcely ever seen you so out of sorts as last Sunday; and I was frightened. In the period from 1900 to 1910 Tesla's creative thrust was to establish his plan for wireless transmission of energy. Undercut by Marconi's accomplishment, beset by financial problems and spurned by the scientific establishment, Tesla was in a desperate situation by mid-decade. The strain became too great by 1906 and he suffered an emotional collapse. In order to make a final effort to have his grand scheme recognized, he may have tried one high power test of his transmitter to show off its destructive potential. This would have been in 1908. The Tunguska event took place on the morning of June 30, 1908. An explosion estimated to be equivalent to 10-15 megatons of TNT flattened 500,000 acres of pine forest near the Stony Tunguska River in central Siberia. Whole herds of reindeer were destroyed. The explosion was heard over a radius of 620 miles. When an expedition was made to the area in 1927 to find evidence of the meteorite presumed to have caused the blast, no impact crater was found. When the ground was drilled for pieces of nickel, iron, or stone — the main constituents of meteorites — nothing was found down to a depth of 118 feet. Many explanations have been given for the Tunguska event. The officially accepted version is that a 100,000-ton fragment of Encke's Comet, composed mainly of dust and ice, entered the atmosphere at 62,000 mph, heated up, and exploded over the earth's surface creating a fireball and shock wave but no crater. Alternative versions of the disaster see a renegade mini-black hole or an alien space ship crashing into the earth with the resulting release of energy. Associating Tesla with the Tunguska event comes close to putting the inventor's power transmission idea in the same speculative category as ancient astronauts. However, by looking at the above chronology, it can be seen that real historical facts point to the possibility that this event was caused by a test firing of Tesla's energy weapon. In 1907 and 1908, Tesla wrote about the destructive effects of his energy transmitter. His Wardenclyffe transmitter was much larger than the Colorado Springs device that destroyed the power station's generator. His new transmitter would be capable of effects many orders of magnitude greater than the Colorado device. In 1915 he said he had already built a transmitter that "when unavoidable...may be used to destroy property and life. Finally, a 1934 letter from Tesla to J. P. Morgan, uncovered by Tesla biographer Margaret Cheney, seems to conclusively point to an energy weapon test. In an effort to raise money for his defensive system he wrote: The flying machine has completely demoralized the world, so much so that in some cities, as London and Paris, people are in mortal fear from aerial bombing. The new means I have perfected afford absolute protection against this and other forms of attack...These new discoveries I have carried out experimentally on a limited scale, created a profound impression. (Emphasis added.) Again, the evidence is circumstantial, but to use the language of criminal investigation, Tesla had motive and means to be the cause of the Tunguska event. He also seems to confess to such a test having taken place before 1915. His transmitter could generate energy levels and frequencies that would release the destructive force of 10 megatons, or more, of TNT. And the overlooked genius was desperate. The nature of the Tunguska event, also, is not inconsistent with what would happen during the sudden release of wireless power. No fiery object was reported in the skies at that time by professional or amateur astronomers as would be expected when a 200,000,000 pound object enters the atmosphere. The sky glow in the region, mentioned by some witnesses as being visible just before the explosion, may have come from the ground. Geological researchers discovered in the 1970s that just before an earthquake the stressed rock beneath the ground creates an electrical effect causing the air to illuminate. If the explosion were caused by wireless energy transmission, either the geological stressing or the electrical current itself might cause a glow in the air. Finally, there is the absence of an impact crater Because there is no material object to impact; an explosion caused by broadcast power would not leave a crater. Given Tesla's general pacifistic nature it is hard to understand why he would carry out a test harmful to both animals and the people who herded the animals, even when he was in the grip of financial desperation. The answer may be that he probably intended no harm, but was aiming for a publicity coup and, literally, missed his target. PEARY WAS 700 MILES FROM THE NORTH POLE At the end of 1908, the whole world was following the daring attempt of Peary to reach the North Pole. Peary claimed the Pole in the Spring of 1909, but the winter before he had returned to the base at Ellesmere Island, about 700 miles from the Pole. If Tesla wanted the attention of the international press, few things would have been more impressive than the Peary expedition sending out word of a cataclysmic explosion on the ice in the direction of the North Pole. If Tesla could not be hailed as the master creator he was, he might have wanted to be seen as the master of a mysterious new force of destruction. The test, it seems, was not a complete success. It must have been difficult controlling the vast amount of power in the transmitter and guiding it to the exact spot Tesla wanted. Ellesmere Island and the Tunguska region are all on the same great circular line from Shoreham, Long Island. Both are on a compass bearing of a little more than two degrees along a polar path. The destructive electrical wave overshot its target. Whoever was privy to Tesla's energy weapon demonstration must have been dismayed either because it missed the intended target and would be a threat to inhabited regions of the planet, or because it worked too well in devastating such a large area at the mere throwing of a switch thousands of miles away, Whichever was the case, Tesla never received the notoriety he sought for his power transmitter. In 1915, the Wardenclyffe laboratory was deeded over to Waldorf-Astoria, Inc. in lieu of payment for Tesla's hotel bills, In 1917, Wardenclyffe was dynamited on orders of the new owners to recover money from the scrap. DID TESLA CAUSE THE TUNGUSKA EVENT? Nikola Tesla The evidence is only circumstantial. Perhaps Tesla never did achieve wireless power transmission through the earth. Maybe he made a mistake in interpreting the results of his radio tests in Colorado Springs and did not produce an effect. Perhaps the mental stress he suffered caused him to retreat completely to a fantasy world from which he would send out preposterous claims to reporters who gathered for his yearly, copy-making pronouncements on his birthday. Maybe the atomic bomb-size explosion in Siberia near the turn of the century was the result of a meteorite no one saw fall. Or, perhaps, Nikola Tesla did shake the world in a way that has been kept secret for over 80 years. The Revelations of Otto Skorzeny, Part 1 Martin Bormann: Reichsleiter in Exile & American Retiree By Ken Adachi, Editor http://educate-yourself.org/cn/martinbormannphotostocompare02jul07.shtml#top July 2, 2007 In 1998, 29 year old Eric Berman of Florida began dating a local girl whose 6'- 4" ninety year old father possessed "the largest hands I'd ever shaken," he said. Over time, "Big Ed," as he was known locally, revealed to the younger man that his real name was Otto Skorzeny, legendary SS (Schutzstaffel) commando of World War II fame, personal bodyguard to Adolf Hitler, and subsequent life-long CIA operative. But that was just the beginning. In the months prior to Skorzeny's death in December of 1999, Skorzeny revealed to Berman some of the most mind boggling information ever made available concerning the whereabouts and activities of major personalities of the Third Reich who were either declared dead by historians or otherwise reported to have been living in undisclosed locations abroad . Skorzeny's lifelong circle of  intimate associates-many living in the United States- included Martin Bormann, Josef Mengele, Alois Brunner, Walter Rauff, and Reinhard Gehlen. An even more surprising revelation from Skorzeny, however, involved two domestic Nazis operatives, both well known to the American public: Prescott Sheldon Bush and his "son", George Herbert Walker Bush, the 41st President of the United States. To buttress his story, Skorzeny produced a shoebox filled with over one hundred photographs spanning a period of more than sixty years and gave them to Berman. The photos were of the usual family poses taken at weddings, anniversaries, holidays, or family reunions in the decades between the 1930's and the 1990's, but what made these photos highly extraordinary was the identity of the individuals seen within those photographs. The shoebox photos show Otto Skorzeny posing with the above named Third Reich personalities, along with additional photographs showing Skorzeny posing with Prescott Bush, his wife, Dorothy Walker Bush, and their son, George Herbert Walker Bush. To say that Berman was in the "right place, at the right time" and was handed what may turn out to be the biggest story to ever come down the pike, is the understatement of the century. Following Skorzeny's death on December 31, 1999, Bermen gathered additional information about Skorzeny's Nazi cohorts and put the entire story -together with 60 or 70 of Skorzeny's shoe box photos- into a copyrighted unpublished manuscript called The Bush Connection. Skorzeny told Bermen that his motive for revealing his information was to exact revenge against George Bush, along with his former Nazi cohorts, for cheating him out of large sums of money during his lifetime. Skorzeny apparently knew he was going to die and felt that Eric Bermen- who is Jewish-would get out the story (it's hard to know for certain if this is the true and only motivation for Skorzeny's revelations. While it sounds logical and typical of human behavior, you would think that Skorzeny would be concerned about his wife and kids after he was gone. It's possible that the revenge angle may be the cover story for a much deeper plot. Considering the vast power that Martin Bormann and the Bormann Organization held with many of the biggest corporations around the globe (over 750), it could be that Bormann and the other aging Nazis may want the story out, as a testament to their Triumph of the Will, so to speak. The late Paul Manning suggested such a recognition/legacy scenario in his 1981 book, Martin Bormann, Nazi in Exile, but this is merely speculation on my part. Revenge alone may have been Skorzeny's primary motivation). Skorzeny published books about his World War II exploits in varied editions starting in 1950 Some of the more explosive highlights of Skorzeny's revelations include: 1. the true identity and Nazi-planned subversive mission of George Herbert Walker Bush, 41st President of the United States; alleged to have been brought into America (with Skorzeny as his body guard) and covertly adopted by Trading-with-The-Enemy convicted Prescott Bush. Skorzeny claimed that GHW Bush's real birth name was George H. Scherff, Jr., son of George Scherff, Sr., German born assistant to inventor Nikola Tesla. Young George allegedly spent his first years in America snooping around Tesla's lab, helping his supposed (George Scherff Sr.) in the 1930's steal or glean whatever they could of Tesla's work and report back to Germany. Tesla had casually remarked to an artisan couple named Rey who had recently emigrated to the United States, of the mischievous and devious prying nature of a "little monkey" around his lab whom he had dubbed "curious George." This character would later become the basis of the children's book series, "Curious George" 2. Skorzeny's role (with Reinhard Gehlen) in the assassination of Nikola Tesla (suffocation) on January 6, 1943 after tricking Tesla on January 5 into revealing the full details of his most important discoveries and then stealing his most valuable inventions, along with the contents of his safe, which were delivered to Hitler, 3. the faked April 1945 "suicide" of Hitler in the Berlin bunker (corroborating the 1948 CIA interrogation of Gestapo Chief Heinrich Mueller, the Nordon Report, and the Russian 1946 Investigative Committee report to Stalin) 4. Skorzeny's pivotal role in consolidating the intelligence assets of the Nazi Gestapo and the Nazi-infiltrated OSS (Office of Strategic Services) into the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1947, working with George Herbert Walker Bush (Nazi infiltrator George H. Scherff, Jr.), Nazi SS spy master Reinhard Gehlen, "Wild Bill" Donovan (compromised), and fifth columnist, Allen Foster Dulles. Skorzeny claimed central responsibility for setting up the Odessa operation to surreptitiously relocate 50,000 (FIFTY THOUSAND) Nazis into North and South America with CIA complicity and protection, 5. Skorzeny's claim that Reinhard Gehlen, Josef Mengele, and George HW Bush directly participated in JFK's assassination and other Nazi-inspired plots which I won't list here, but are explored more completely in Eric Bermen's The Bush Connection CD. Don Nicoloff published an extremely thorough and well researched treatise in two parts in April 2007 in the Idaho Observer titled "Deathbed Confessions, photos support claims that George H. Scherf(f), Jr., was the 41st U.S. president" ) Don takes the Berman/Skorzeny information to a much higher level of investigative research. In a recent phone conversation, Don told me that he was working on the Bush/Walker genealogy deception for nearly a year before discovering Eric Berman's astounding information. With Skorzeny's revelations, he was able to nail down many loose ends and has put together the most damming evidence to date that Prescott Sheldon Bush and George Herbert Walker Bush (and other members of the Bush/Walker clans) are not who they claim to be and are in fact German born infiltrators and fifth columnists secreted into America. The Skorzeny photo seen at the top of Don Nicoloff's article may prove to be the most important photo of the entire Skorzeny collection; perhaps the Photo of the Century. It's shows a circa 1929 "family" group pose taken in a home in Germany owned by the Scherff family that purports to include Martin Bormann, Reinhard Gehlen, Josef Mengele, Otto Skorzeny, George H. Scherff, Jr (aka, George HW Bush), Prescott Bush, "Mother" Scherff , and likely Dorothy Walker Bush (I will present another article, Part 2, dealing with the personalities seen within this photograph). If you search the name "Otto Skorzeny" on the internet, historical archives will indicate that he died in Madrid, Spain in 1975, but .Skorzeny told Berman that the date of his supposed death in 1975 was faked by the CIA, as were the supposed "deaths" of many of the Third Reich's most notable names. The Third Reich intelligence apparatus, under General Reinhard Mueller, towards the end of the war, faked many "deaths" as well, in anticipation of losing World War II. Martin Bormann went so far as to have a look-alike prisoner in one of the Nazi concentration camps fitted with the exact dental work that Bormann had so that they could use this person's body to fake the "forensic dental evidence" of Bormann's death-which is exactly what was perpetrated in the news in 1972 and again in 1998. Martin Bormann No central figure of the Third Reich has generated more speculation and controversy than Reichleiter Martin Bormann. He proved to be the most cunning, capable, and intelligent master chess player of the Third Reich. Towards the latter half of the war, no one could get to see Hitler without Bormann's approval. Hitler invested his total trust in Bormann alone and assigned to Bormann full control of the Third Reich in his Last Will signed in the final days at the Berlin bunker. Bormann came to realize that Germany could not win the war and made extensive preparations to export Third Reich brain power, personnel, stolen assets and technological secrets out of Germany before the allies could seize them. Comparing Third Reich Photos of Bormann to Skorzeny's Photos The first three rows of photos below are official Third Reich photos taken off the internet of Martin Bormann in the 1930's and 1940's in which I've cropped Bormann's head to fill most of the frame. Following these nine photographs, there are five rows of head-cropped photographs from Otto Skorzeny's shoe box collection available from Eric Bermen's CD that Skorzeny claimed are photos of the same Martin Bormann. In each of Skorzeny's photos, I cropped out and magnified the head area alone of the man that Skorzeny claims is Martin Bormann. Skorzeny told Bermen that Bormann used the alias of "Ed Kobylarz". The first thing you should note is that a smiling Martin Bormann presents a much different appearance than a closed mouth, unsmiling, serious, Aryan tough guy pose that the Nazis wanted to project in their official photographs. The last photo (3rd row) of the official, Third Reich Bormann photos shows Bormann smiling while standing next to Hitler and looking down at the papers in Hitler's hands. Notice how the appearance of his teeth -especially the gaps between his teeth (the central gap being the widest)- seem to match perfectly the gaps seen in the teeth of Bormann as a boy of 10 or 11 years of age in the first row of Skorzeny's cropped photos. In the two Skorzeny cropped black and white photos of Bormann with glasses, you will notice that this man looks YOUNGER than the Third Reich Bormann of the 1930's and 1940's, however, Skorzeny told Bermen that Mengele and Bormann had multiple facelifts and plastic surgeries and this may account for the more youthful appearance. The gaps in Bormann's teeth seem to remain unchanged. You can decide for yourself whether Skorzeny's photos are of the Reichleiter or not, but you should bear in mind that most of Skorzeny's photos which included Bormann, also included Skorzeny, Reinhard Gehlen, Alois Brunner, Josef Mengele and Walter Rauff. Skorzeny, Brunner, and Gehlen are easy to recognize from their Nazi era photographs and apparently have not had any plastic surgery done to alter their appearance. Mengele, Rauff and Bormann are harder to identify with certainty from their Nazi era photos. All dates indicated for the Skorzeny photos are taken from Eric Bermen's CD, The Bush Connection. I  cannot guarantee that they are accurate. The 21st century dates shown for Bormann photos after Skorzeny's death in December of 1999 don't make sense to me, but I'm reporting what's stated on the Berman CD. Official Third Reich photos of Martin Bormann                    from 1939 Nazi Calendar                       April 20, 1938 birthday party for Hitler        Pose with Hitler at Berchtesgarden                   Skorzeny's photos below: As a boy, perhaps 10 or 11 yeas old            With German Navy seaman's uniform)   1930's Christmas party (with other top Nazis)          Date unknown  (likely 1950s)                       Date unknown (likely 1950s)                                 Wedding day (late 1950s?)           [Bormann's paradoxically youthful appearance following World War II: Judging from the black and white photos seen above, Bormann seems to look much younger than his Nazi era photographs. Compare his wedding day picture holding his new bride (the original photo has automobiles in the background that look to be of mid 1950 to late 1950 vintage) and the 1930s Christmas party. photo seen in the row immediately above. There is approximately a 20 year difference between the late 1930s Christmas party photo and the wedding day photo of the late 1950s, yet Bormann looks to be about the same age. Eric Bermen has tried to account for this paradox by speculating that Bormann was born closer to 1920 rather than 1900, but that's not possible based on reasons given below. Bermen also mentions plastic surgery courtesy of the CIA and that's always possible. However, Al Bielek may have provided the key to this mystery by mentioning in his lectures that the top players in the Third Reich had access to alien-based age regression technology as early as the mid 1930s (as well as flying saucers). This shouldn't be too hard to believe since Frenchman Antoine Prioré (with French government underwriting) had developed an age regression machine (based on reverse phase conjugation) in the late 60s and early 70s that could reverse disease conditions in animals (and later humans) by reverse aging the cells of the body back to an earlier point in time, when the cells were free of the disease. If you were to subject an entire human body to this technology, the entire body would naturally move back in time to an earlier point of youth. I'm only speculating of course, but I believe this is what happened to both Bormann and Mengele at least, as they both look much, much younger than their chronological age. Mind you, Bormann and Mengele are likely still alive today, in the year 2008. They would both be around 108 years old....Ken] Wedding Day with new wife (ca. late 1950s)                                              1974 posing with wife (see full size original photo here)   1974 (standing next to his wife)                               1979  (wedding reception)                      August 11, 1979           April 3, 1983 (Easter)                                  1986 Boynton Beach, Florida         October 23, 1989 (Boynton Beach Inlet, Florida)         October 1998                                          September 30, 2000                                           June 2003       January 2003                                                  2003                                                "Ed Kobylarz" 2003      Eric Bermen's Role We wouldn't be seeing these amazing photographs, nor be privy to Skorzeny's incredible revelation, had Skorzeny not revealed this information to Eric Berman. Skorzeny's revelations and photos present a sea change in our historical perceptions of what actually happened to these top echelon players of the Third Reich. Eric spent his time between December 31, 1999, the given date of Skorzeny's death, and 2005, the year he produced the photos, to gather further details about Skorzeny's Third Reich pals. In some cases, Eric has ventured speculations concerning the birth dates of Bormann or Mengele, where he jumps to illogical conclusions. For instance, Eric speculates that Bormann was born closer to 1920, rather than 1900 (official birth date June 17, 1900, Wegeleben, Prussia, Germany). That's impossible, as Bormann was imprisoned in 1924 (for one year) along with Rudolf Hess for the brutal murder of Bormann's elementary school teacher, Walther Kadow. (In checking Berman's text concerning Bormann from page 36 of his pdf, against material posted to the internet, I noticed that Eric often cuts and paste the text from other internet articles into his own, so you don't know what Berman originated and what he copied. As a writer whose words have often been plagiarized by internet copy cats, I have little patience with people who do that. So in fairness to the original author, I've posted the original source material below Berman's page 36 account on Bormann ) Al Bielek indicated in his lectures that the top Nazis had access to alien rejuvenation technology since the mid 1930s. It's not an accident of Nature that all of Skorzeny's Third Reich cohorts, including Adolf Hitler (alias "William Coates"), were alive and kicking in the late 20th century when many of these photos were taken. When you see Part 3 of the Skorzeny revelation centering on Josef Mengele, you will be amazed to see that Mengele looks like a man in his late 50s or early 60s from photos that were taken as late as 2003. Excerpt about Martin Bormann from page 36 of the The Bush Connection: "Hitler's plan was to have young SS nazis run the Third Reich, in hopes that they would live long enough to start the Fourth Reich or New World Order in America in the year 2004.(28) Bormann was one of Hitler's "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse", George Bush, Mengele, and Gehlen were the other three. Skorzeny was the unofficial Fifth"Horseman."(29) The son of a former Prussian regimental Sergeant-Major who later became a post-office employee, Bormann dropped out of school to work on a farming estate in Mecklenburg. Bormann joined the rightist Rossbach Freikorps in Mecklenburg and was connected with the so-called 'Femme' murders. He was diligent, adaptable and efficient, began his silent, imperceptible rise to the center of the power apparatus, slowly acquiring master of the bureaucratic mechanism and Hitler's personal trust. He developed and administered the Adolf Hitler Endowment Fund of German industry, a huge fund of'voluntary' contributions by successful business entrepreneurs to the Fuhrer, which Bormann then reallocated as gifts to almost all the top Party functionaries. By the end of 1944, Bormann was virtually Hitler's deputy and his closest collaborator, showing an uncanny ability to exploit his weaknesses and personal peculiarities in order to increase his own power. Always in attendance to the Fuhrer, he took care of tiresome administrative detail and skillfully steered Hitler into approval of his own schemes, Bormann acquired the inside track for displacing dangerous rivals like Goering, Goebbels, Speer and even Himmler whose access to the Fuhrer was controlled by Bormann. Bormann exploited his position of trust to build a Chinese wall against reality, in which Hitler could indulge his fantasies and in which more sensible, conciliatory proposals from other members of the Party, were screened from him. Bormann reduced everything to simple, administrative formulae that freed Hitler from the burdens of paper work. He drew up his appointments calendar and decided whom he should see and whom he should not. Hitler rewarded these and other services by the trust he placed in Bormann, whom he once called 'my most loyal Party comrade'. He was made executive head of the Volkssturm, the desperate levy en masse of the German civilian population organized as the Allies stood poised to invade the Reich. By now virtually the secret ruler of Germany, Bormann did not cease his Machiavellian bureaucratic intrigues against his rivals. As a result of his machinations Hitler dismissed Goering; and Himmler's influence was severely curtailed. It was the indispensable Bormann, the most mysterious and sinister figure in the Third Reich, who signed Hitler's political testament, who acted as the witness to his marriage to Eva Braun and (supposedly) watched his Fuhrer commit suicide in the Chancellery bunker. Ordered by Hitler 'to put the interests of the nation before his own feelings' and to save himself, Bormann left the Fuhrerbunker on 30 April 1945. Accounts of what happened afterwards vary widely. According to Erich Kempka (Hitler's chauffeur), Bormann was killed trying to cross the Russian lines by an anti-tank shell which hit the tank in which they were trying to escape, causing it to burst into flames. Kempka, who was temporarily blinded at the time, claimed nonetheless to have seen Bormann's dead body. Hitler Youth Leader, Artur Axmann, on the other hand, believed that Bormann committed suicide and claimed to have seen Bormann's body on 2 May 1945 in the Invalidenstrasse, north of the River Spree in Berlin. Doubts, however, have persisted and numerous sightings of Bormann have been reported, beginning in 1946 when his presence in a North Italian monastery was announced. In the same year, his wife Gerda (a rabid Nazi and daughter of Supreme Party Judge, Walter Buch) died of cancer in South Tyrol, though his ten children survived the war. It was then alleged that Bormann had escaped (like other loyal Nazis) via Rome to South America. Rumored to have settled in Argentina where he was living secretly as a millionaire, allegedly spotted in Brazil and also in Chile, Bormann's traces proved as elusive as the anonymity in which he first rose to power. Having been sentenced to death in absentia at Nuremberg on October 1, 1946, he was formally pronounced dead by a West German court in April 1973, but his precise fate remains unknown. (30) The C.I.A's story in nonsense. He is alive & they are still protecting him! Bormann is still alive and funneling billions of stolen Jewish Holocaust dollars into anti-freedom, anti-Jewish, anti-black, prolife, anti-gun, conservative New World Order Republican campaigns, like Bush Jr. Also, neo-nazi fundamentalist, conservative, right-wing, Christian Coalition, anti-freedom groups like the abortion doctor killer supporters "Operation Rescue","The Brotherhood of Aryan Nations "organized crime" hate group," the KKK and C.I.A. sponsored Al Qaeda Terrorist Cells.(31)" ORION [Eric Berman] Martin Bormann Date of Birth: June 17, 1900 Place of Birth: Halberstadt, Germany Rank: Reichsleiter Position: Head of the Party Chancellery and private secretary of the Fuhrer Place of Death: Unknown Date of Death: 1972 Martin was a son of a former Prussian regimental sergeant-major who later became a post-office employee, Bormann dropped out of school to work on a farming estate in Mecklenburg. After serving briefly as a cannoneer in a field artillery regiment at the end of World War I, Bormann subsequently joined the rightist Rossbach Freikorps in Mecklenburg and was connected with the so-called 'Feme' murders. In March 1924 he was sentenced to one year's imprisonment as an accomplice of Rudolf Hess in the brutal, vengeance murder of Walther Kadow (his former teacher at elementary school), who had supposedly betrayed the proto-Nazi martyr Leo Schlageter to the French occupation authorities in the Ruhr. After his release he entered the NSDAP, becoming its regional press officer in Thuringia and then business manager in 1928. From 1928 to 1930 he was attached to the SA Supreme Command and in October 1933 he became a Reichsleiter of the NSDAP. A month later he was elected as a Nazi delegate to the Reichstag. From July 1933 until 1941 Bormann was the Chief of Cabinet in the Office of the Deputy Fuhrer, Rudolf Hess , acting as his personal secretary and right-hand man. During this period, the 'model secretary', diligent, adaptable and efficient, began his silent, imperceptible rise to the centre of the power apparatus, slowly acquiring master of the bureaucratic mechanism and Hitler's personal trust. He developed and administered the Adolf Hitler Endowment Fund of German industry, a huge fund of 'voluntary' contributions by successful business entrepreneurs to the Fuhrer, which Bormann then reallocated as gifts to almost all the top Party functionaries. In addition to administering Hitler's personal finances, buying the Berghof at Berchtesgaden and running it as well as the whole complex of properties on the Obersalzberg, Bormann acquired the power to control the living standards of Gauleiters and Reichsleiters, not to speak of members of the Fuhrer's intimate circle. Bormann's brutality, coarseness, lack of culture and his apparent insignificance led the Nazi Old Guard to underestimate his silent persistence and ability to make himself indispensable. Rudolf Hess's flight to Britain opened the way for the 'Brown Eminence' to step into his shoes on 12 May 1941 as head of the Parteikanzlei and to gather the reins of the Party into his own hands and steadily undermine all his rivals for power. Until the end of the war, the short, squat Bormann, working in the anonymity of his seemingly unimportant office, proved himself a master of intrigue, manipulation and political in-fighting. Always the 'narrow Party man' and a fierce guardian of Nazi orthodoxy (he was an arch-fanatic when it came to racial policy, anti-semitism and the Kirchenkampf [war between the churches]), Bormann strengthened the position of the Party against the Wehrmacht and the SS, and increased his grip on domestic policy. Increasingly he controlled all questions concerning the security of the regime, acts of legislation, appointments and promotions, especially if they concerned Party personnel. He also established espionage in the army, getting younger officers promoted to spy on the political attitudes of their colleagues. He reopened the fight against the Christian churches, declaring in a confidential memo to Gauleiters in 1942 that their power 'must absolutely and finally be broken'. Nazism, based as it was on a 'scientific' world-view, was completely incompatible with Christianity whose influence was regarded by Bormann as a serious obstacle to totalitarian rule. The sharpest anti-cleric in the Nazi leadership (he collected all the files of cases against the clergy that he could lay his hands on), Bormann was the driving force of the Kirchenkampf, which Hitler for tactical reasons had wished to postpone until after the war. Bormann was invariably the advocate of extremely harsh, radical measures when it came to the treatment of Jews, of the conquered eastern peoples or prisoners of war. He signed the decree of 9 October 1942 prescribing that 'the permanent elimination of the Jews from the territories of Greater Germany can no longer be carried out by emigration but by the use of ruthless force in the special camps of the East'. A further decree, signed by Bormann on 1 July 1943, gave Adolf Eichmann absolute powers over Jews, who now came under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Gestapo. Bormann's memos concerning the Slavs make it clear that he regarded them as a 'Sovietized mass' of sub- humans who had no claim to national independence. In a brutal memo of 19 August 1942 he wrote: 'The Slavs are to work for us. In so far as we do not need them, they may die. Slav fertility is not desirable.' By the end of 1942 Bormann was virtually Hitler's deputy and his closest collaborator, showing an uncanny ability to exploit his weaknesses and personal peculiarities in order to increase his own power. Always in attendance on the Fuhrer, taking care of tiresome administrative detail and skilfully steering Hitler into approval of his own schemes, Bormann acquired the inside track for displacing dangerous rivals like , Goebbels, Speer and even Eva Braun and watched his Fuhrer commit suicide in the Chancellery bunker. Ordered by Hitler 'to put the interests of the nation before his own feelings' and to save himself, Bormann left the Fuhrerbunker on 30 April 1945. Accounts of what happened afterwards vary widely. According to Erich Kempka (Hitler's chauffeur), Bormann was killed trying to cross the Russian lines by an anti-tank shell which hit the tank in which they were trying to escape, causing it to burst into flames. Kempka, who was temporarily blinded at the time, claimed nonetheless to have seen Bormann's dead body. Hitler Youth Leader, Artur Axmann, on the other hand, believed that Bormann committed suicide and claimed to have seen Bormann's body on 2 May 1945 in the Invalidenstrasse, north of the River Spree in Berlin. Doubts, however, have persisted and numerous sightings of Bormann have been reported, beginning in 1946 when his presence in a North Italian monastery was announced. In the same year, his wife Gerda (a rabid Nazi and daughter of Supreme Party Judge, Walter Buch) died of cancer in South Tyrol, though his ten children survived the war. It was then alleged that Bormann had escaped (like other loyal Nazis) via Rome to South America. Rumoured to have settled in Argentina where he was living secretly as a millionaire, allegedly spotted in Brazil and also in Chile, Bormann's traces proved as elusive as the anonymity in which he first rose to power. Having been sentenced to death in absentia at Nuremberg on 1 October 1946, he was formally pronounced dead by a West German court in April 1973 but his precise fate remains unknown.  Source:  The Revelations of Otto Skorzeny, Part 1 (Martin Bormann: Reichsleiter in Exile & American Retiree) by Ken Adachi July 2, 2007 The Transmission of Electric Energy Without Wires by Nikola Tesla Electrical World and Engineer March 5th, 1904 It is impossible to resist your courteous request extended on an occasion of such moment in the life of your journal. Your letter has vivified the memory of our beginning friendship, of the first imperfect attempts and undeserved successes, of kindnesses and misunderstandings. It has brought painfully to my mind the greatness of early expectations, the quick flight of time, and alas! the smallness of realizations. The following lines which, but for your initiative, might not have been given to the world for a long time yet, are an offering in the friendly spirit of old, and my best wishes for your future success accompany them. Towards the close of 1898 a systematic research, carried on for a number of years with the object of perfecting a method of transmission of electrical energy through the natural medium, led me to recognize three important necessities: First, to develop a transmitter of great power; second, to perfect means for individualizing and isolating the energy transmitted; and, third, to ascertain the laws of propagation of currents through the earth and the atmosphere. Various reasons, not the least of which was the help proffered by my friend Leonard E. Curtis and the Colorado Springs Electric Company, determined me to select for my experimental investigations the large plateau, two thousand meters above sea-level, in the vicinity of that delightful resort, which I reached late in May, 1899. I had not been there but a few days when I congratulated myself on the happy choice and I began the task, for which I had long trained myself, with a grateful sense and full of inspiring hope. The perfect purity of the air, the unequaled beauty of the sky, the imposing sight of a high mountain range, the quiet and restfulness of the place — all around contributed to make the conditions for scientific observations ideal. To this was added the exhilarating influence of a glorious climate and a singular sharpening of the senses. In those regions the organs undergo perceptible physical changes. The eyes assume an extraordinary limpidity, improving vision; the ears dry out and become more susceptible to sound. Objects can be clearly distinguished there at distances such that I prefer to have them told by someone else, and I have heard — this I can venture to vouch for — the claps of thunder seven and eight hundred kilometers away. I might have done better still, had it not been tedious to wait for the sounds to arrive, in definite intervals, as heralded precisely by an electrical indicating apparatus — nearly an hour before. In the middle of June, while preparations for other work were going on, I arranged one of my receiving transformers with the view of determining in a novel manner, experimentally, the electric potential of the globe and studying its periodic and casual fluctuations. This formed part of a plan carefully mapped out in advance. A highly sensitive, self-restorative device, controlling a recording instrument, was included in the secondary circuit, while the primary was connected to the ground and an elevated terminal of adjustable capacity. The variations of potential gave rise to electric surgings in the primary; these generated secondary currents, which in turn affected the sensitive device and recorder in proportion to their intensity. The earth was found to be, literally, alive with electrical vibrations, and soon I was deeply absorbed in the interesting investigation. No better opportunities for such observations as I intended to make could be found anywhere. Colorado is a country famous for the natural displays of electric force. In that dry and rarefied atmosphere the sun's rays beat the objects with fierce intensity. I raised steam, to a dangerous pressure, in barrels filled with concentrated salt solution, and the tin-foil coatings of some of my elevated terminals shriveled up in the fiery blaze. An experimental high-tension transformer, carelessly exposed to the rays of the setting sun, had most of its insulating compound melted out and was rendered useless. Aided by the dryness and rarefaction of the air, the water evaporates as in a boiler, and static electricity is developed in abundance. Lightning discharges are, accordingly, very frequent and sometimes of inconceivable violence. On one occasion approximately twelve thousand discharges occurred in two hours, and all in a radius of certainly less than fifty kilometers from the laboratory. Many of them resembled gigantic trees of fire with the trunks up or down. I never saw fire balls, but as compensation for my disappointment I succeeded later in determining the mode of their formation and producing them artificially. In the latter part of the same month I noticed several times that my instruments were affected stronger by discharges taking place at great distances than by those near by. This puzzled me very much. What was the cause? A number of observations proved that it could not be due to the differences in the intensity of the individual discharges, and I readily ascertained that the phenomenon was not the result of a varying relation between the periods of my receiving circuits and those of the terrestrial disturbances. One night, as I was walking home with an assistant, meditating over these experiences, I was suddenly staggered by a thought. Years ago, when I wrote a chapter of my lecture before the Franklin Institute and the National Electric Light Association, it had presented itself to me, but I dismissed it as absurd and impossible. I banished it again. Nevertheless, my instinct was aroused and somehow I felt that I was nearing a great revelation. It was on the third of July — the date I shall never forget — when I obtained the first decisive experimental evidence of a truth of overwhelming importance for the advancement of humanity. A dense mass of strongly charged clouds gathered in the west and towards the evening a violent storm broke loose which, after spending much of its fury in the mountains, was driven away with great velocity over the plains. Heavy and long persisting arcs formed almost in regular time intervals. My observations were now greatly facilitated and rendered more accurate by the experiences already gained. I was able to handle my instruments quickly and I was prepared. The recording apparatus being properly adjusted, its indications became fainter and fainter with the increasing distance of the storm, until they ceased altogether. I was watching in eager expectation. Surely enough, in a little while the indications again began, grew stronger and stronger and, after passing through a maximum, gradually decreased and ceased once more. Many times, in regularly recurring intervals, the same actions were repeated until the storm which, as evident from simple computations, was moving with nearly constant speed, had retreated to a distance of about three hundred kilometers. Nor did these strange actions stop then, but continued to manifest themselves with undiminished force. Subsequently, similar observations were also made by my assistant, Mr. Fritz Lowenstein, and shortly afterward several admirable opportunities presented themselves which brought out, still more forcibly, and unmistakably, the true nature of the wonderful phenomenon. No doubt whatever remained: I was observing stationary waves. As the source of disturbances moved away the receiving circuit came successively upon their nodes and loops. Impossible as it seemed, this planet, despite its vast extent, behaved like a conductor of limited dimensions. The tremendous significance of this fact in the transmission of energy by my system had already become quite clear to me. Not only was it practicable to send telegraphic messages to any distance without wires, as I recognized long ago, but also to impress upon the entire globe the faint modulations of the human voice, far more still, to transmit power, in unlimited amounts, to any terrestrial distance and almost without loss. With these stupendous possibilities in sight, with the experimental evidence before me that their realization was henceforth merely a question of expert knowledge, patience and skill, I attacked vigorously the development of my magnifying transmitter, now, however, not so much with the original intention of producing one of great power, as with the object of learning how to construct the best one. This is, essentially, a circuit of very high self-induction and small resistance which in its arrangement, mode of excitation and action, may be said to be the diametrical opposite of a transmitting circuit typical of telegraphy by Hertzian or electromagnetic radiations. It is difficult to form an adequate idea of the marvelous power of this unique appliance, by the aid of which the globe will be transformed. The electromagnetic radiations being reduced to an insignificant quantity, and proper conditions of resonance maintained, the circuit acts like an immense pendulum, storing indefinitely the energy of the primary exciting impulses and impressions upon the earth and its conducting atmosphere uniform harmonic oscillations of intensities which, as actual tests have shown, may be pushed so far as to surpass those attained in the natural displays of static electricity. Simultaneously with these endeavors, the means of individualization and isolation were gradually improved. Great importance was attached to this, for it was found that simple tuning was not sufficient to meet the vigorous practical requirements. The fundamental idea of employing a number of distinctive elements, co-operatively associated, for the purpose of isolating energy transmitted, I trace directly to my perusal of Spencer's clear and suggestive exposition of the human nerve mechanism. The influence of this principle on the transmission of intelligence, and electrical energy in general, cannot as yet be estimated, for the art is still in the embryonic stage; but many thousands of simultaneous telegraphic and telephonic messages, through one single conducting channel, natural or artificial, and without serious mutual interference, are certainly practicable, while millions are possible. On the other hand, any desired degree of individualization may be secured by the use of a great number of co-operative elements and arbitrary variation of their distinctive features and order of succession. For obvious reasons, the principle will also be valuable in the extension of the distance of transmission. Progress though of necessity slow was steady and sure, for the objects aimed at were in a direction of my constant study and exercise. It is, therefore, not astonishing that before the end of 1899 I completed the task undertaken and reached the results which I have announced in my article in the Century Magazine of June, 1900, every word of which was carefully weighed. Much has already been done towards making my system commercially available, in the transmission of energy in small amounts for specific purposes, as well as on an industrial scale. The results attained by me have made my scheme of intelligence transmission, for which the name of "World Telegraphy" has been suggested, easily realizable. It constitutes, I believe, in its principle of operation, means employed and capacities of application, a radical and fruitful departure from what has been done heretofore. I have no doubt that it will prove very efficient in enlightening the masses, particularly in still uncivilized countries and less accessible regions, and that it will add materially to general safety, comfort and convenience, and maintenance of peaceful relations. It involves the employment of a number of plants, all of which are capable of transmitting individualized signals to the uttermost confines of the earth. Each of them will be preferably located near some important center of civilization and the news it receives through any channel will be flashed to all points of the globe. A cheap and simple device, which might be carried in one's pocket, may then be set up somewhere on sea or land, and it will record the world's news or such special messages as may be intended for it. Thus the entire earth will be converted into a huge brain, as it were, capable of response in every one of its parts. Since a single plant of but one hundred horse-power can operate hundreds of millions of instruments, the system will have a virtually infinite working capacity, and it must needs immensely facilitate and cheapen the transmission of intelligence. The first of these central plants would have been already completed had it not been for unforeseen delays which, fortunately, have nothing to do with its purely technical features. But this loss of time, while vexatious, may, after all, prove to be a blessing in disguise. The best design of which I know has been adopted, and the transmitter will emit a wave complex of total maximum activity of ten million horse-power, one per cent. of which is amply sufficient to "girdle the globe." This enormous rate of energy delivery, approximately twice that of the combined falls of Niagara, is obtainable only by the use of certain artifices, which I shall make known in due course. For a large part of the work which I have done so far I am indebted to the noble generosity of Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan, which was all the more welcome and stimulating, as it was extended at a time when those, who have since promised most, were the greatest of doubters. I have also to thank my friend, Stanford White, for much unselfish and valuable assistance. This work is now far advanced, and though the results may be tardy, they are sure to come. Meanwhile, the transmission of energy on an industrial scale is not being neglected. The Canadian Niagara Power Company have offered me a splendid inducement, and next to achieving success for the sake of the art, it will give me the greatest satisfaction to make their concession financially profitable to them. In this first power plant, which I have been designing for a long time, I propose to distribute ten thousand horse-power under a tension of one hundred million volts, which I am now able to produce and handle with safety. This energy will be collected all over the globe preferably in small amounts, ranging from a fraction of one to a few horse-power. One of its chief uses will be the illumination of isolated homes. I takes very little power to light a dwelling with vacuum tubes operated by high- frequency currents and in each instance a terminal a little above the roof will be sufficient. Another valuable application will be the driving of clocks and other such apparatus. These clocks will be exceedingly simple, will require absolutely no attention and will indicate rigorously correct time. The idea of impressing upon the earth American time is fascinating and very likely to become popular. There are innumerable devices of all kinds which are either now employed or can be supplied, and by operating them in this manner I may be able to offer a great convenience to whole world with a plant of no more than ten thousand horse-power. The introduction of this system will give opportunities for invention and manufacture such as have never presented themselves before. Knowing the far-reaching importance of this first attempt and its effect upon future development, I shall proceed slowly and carefully. Experience has taught me not to assign a term to enterprises the consummation of which is not wholly dependent on my own abilities and exertions. But I am hopeful that these great realizations are not far off, and I know that when this first work is completed they will follow with mathematical certitude. When the great truth accidentally revealed and experimentally confirmed is fully recognized, that this planet, with all its appalling immensity, is to electric currents virtually no more than a small metal ball and that by this fact many possibilities, each baffling imagination and of incalculable consequence, are rendered absolutely sure of accomplishment; when the first plant is inaugurated and it is shown that a telegraphic message, almost as secret and non-interferable as a thought, can be transmitted to any terrestrial distance, the sound of the human voice, with all its intonations and inflections, faithfully and instantly reproduced at any other point of the globe, the energy of a waterfall made available for supplying light, heat or motive power, anywhere — on sea, or land, or high in the air — humanity will be like an ant heap stirred up with a stick: See the excitement coming!  Source:  The Transmission of Electric Energy Without Wires | Tesla Universe Invention of the Tesla coil. A type of electrical circuit used to generate low-current, high-voltage electricity. Development of the rotating magnetic field principle. Tesla used it to invent the induction motor together with the accompanying alternating current long-distance electrical transmission system. Conception of employing continuous waves. Tesla's design of apparatus for producing them preceded the radio industry by at least two decades. Design of the first hydroelectric power plant in Niagara Falls, New York. Construction took three years, and power first flowed to homes in nearby Buffalo on November 16, 1896. Claims concerning a "teleforce" weapon. The press called it a "peace ray" or death ray. Hitler's 1945 'Suicide' and Death Were Faked by Ken Adachi (May 8, 2010) I just read a link posted at Jeff Rense's web site of a UK Telegraph article titled "Hitler Did Not Shoot Himself" (article re-posted further below). I thought I was going to read a story that would begin the process, at least on some official level, of de-constructing the myth of Hitler's supposed suicide in the Berlin Bunker in April of 1945. Instead, I see another minor variation on the Big Lie presented to the public that was initially promulgated in 1945 by British and American intelligence, and later by Russian intelligence, that Hitler and Eva Braun had died in the Berlin Bunker  (Führerbunker). The Telegraph article's source, Lt-General Khristoforov, Russia's "top" KGB archivist, claims that he's debunking the myth of how Hitler killed himself, while continuing to reinforce the LARGER myth that Hitler even died in 1945. The intelligence services of every major country in the world know full well that Hitler did not die in the Berlin bunker in 1945, and now, 65 years later, we continue to be fed the same claptrap - from a Russian intelligence officer, of course- about Hitler's 1945 Berlin 'death.' According to SS General Heinrich Mueller, in his lengthy debriefing to the CIA in 1948 (Gestapo Chief, the 1948 Interrogation of Heinrich Mueller by Gregory Douglas, pub 1995), neither Hitler nor Eva Braun had committed suicide or died in 1945. They both left the Berlin bunker on April 22, 1945. On the evening of April 22, Hitler was flown out of Berlin in all likelihood by Hanna Reitsch possibly using a Type Fa 223, twin rotor helicopter to Hoerching airfield, located close to Linz, Austria. On April 26, 1945 at 8 p.m., Hitler, Eva Braun, and at least two other individuals were then flown out of Hoerching by Colonel Werner Baumbach, commander of Hitler's Flight Command, aboard a four engine, Junker Ju 290A and arrived in Barcelona, Spain on April 27, 1945. About 80 other members of Hitler's staff also left the Führerbunker on April 22, 1945. On either April 27 or 28, Colonel Baumbach flew the Junker back to northern Germany and landed it at Travemuendi airport on April 29, 1945 which he recounted in his book, Broken Swastika (pub. posthumously in 1992). Baumbach did not account for his whereabouts between April 21 -27, 1945. Doubles used after April 22, 1945 Doubles for both Hitler and Eva Braun were inserted into the Berlin bunker and appeared from the evening of April 22, 1945 until the murder of Hitler's double on April 30, 1945. Heinrich Mueller told his CIA interrogators that he had found the Hitler double in 1941, having been born to a family named Sillip in the Waldvierterl district of Austria. The Hitler double was unmarried, worked in Breslau, was a member of the Nazi party and the SA, and was reported to be a distant relative to Hitler. He was two inches shorter than Hitler and therefore fitted with special lifts placed in his boots to compensate for the difference in height. He had rehearsed Hitler's speech patterns and gestures and was made to quit smoking. This required a special diet to prevent him from gaining weight.He was only used a few times as a Hitler stand-in , and then only after the July 20, 1944 Wolf Lair bombing attempt on Hitler's life The Hitler double was already accustomed to a daily injection of drugs given to him in the bunker, but was given a poison injection on April 30, likely by a Prof. Hesse. After slumping over, and to be sure he was dead, the double was then shot in the center of the forehead with the same 7.65 mm caliber Walter pistol that he carried in his holster (the real Hitler carried a 6.25 mm Walter). The double for Eva Braun may or may not have been killed. The body of Eva Braun was NEVER found in the Chancellery garden by the Russians, unlike the Hitler double who was dug up, unburned, from a shallow grave. It's possible that the Eva Braun double was drugged into an unconscious state (or pretended to be dead) and later allowed to escape after her supposedly dead body was wrapped up and carried out of the bunker. The photographs seen below were taken by the Russian Army on May 2, 1945 and distributed to news organizations around the world. The body is not that of Adolf Hitler, but rather of the Hitler double, Sillip. You will notice that he has a bullet hole in the center of his forehead, rather than the right temple as we are led to believe from numerous re-enactments seen in documentaries and moves when Hitler "shot himself." You will also notice that the body is unburned, which is at complete odds with the fictional account of high ranking German aides burning the bodies of both Hitler and Eva Braun in a shallow grave in the Chancellery garden using gasoline (if you pour gasoline all over a body and then torch it, it's certainly not going to look like this fellow). After taking these photos, the Russian Army burned the corpse and then buried it, only to dig it up a day later and fly the corpse to Moscow under orders from Stalin. Stalin told Churchill and Truman at the Potsdam Conference in July 1945 that the corpse was a double and that Hitler had escaped to Spain. The Russians later found it convenient to go along with the British/American story of the Hitler/Braun suicide hoax.   Please note that no one WITNESSED the supposed drug suicide by "Eva Braun" or the supposed shooting-suicide of the Hitler double. They were in a SOUNDPROOF room, yet you have a few witnesses claiming that they heard shots, while others who were present in the corridor right outside the door say that they heard NOTHING. The Hitler and Eva Braun doubles were the two individuals who participated in the marriage ceremony in the early morning hours of April 29, 1945. The official account of who was present at the ceremony and what actually transpired has been fudged by the Gestapo (Mueller) to jibe with the official version of Hitler's demise. Skorzeny's role (with Reinhard Gehlen) in the assassination of Nikola Tesla by suffocation on January 6, 1943.  The pair tricked Tesla on January 5 into revealing the full details of his most important discoveries.  After killing him they stole his most valuable inventions, along with the contents of his safe, which were delivered to Hitler.  (James Rink says these included anti-gravity technology, teleportation, scalar weapons and free energy.) The faked April 1945 suicide of Hitler in the Berlin bunker (corroborating the 1948 CIA interrogation of Gestapo Chief Heinrich Mueller, the Nordon Report, and the Russian 1946 Investigative Committee report to Stalin). Skorzeny's pivotal role in consolidating the intelligence assets of the Nazi Gestapo and the Nazi-infiltrated Office of Strategic Services (OSS) into the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1947, working with George Herbert Walker Bush, Nazi SS spy master Reinhard Gehlen, "Wild Bill" Donovan, and fifth columnist, Allen Foster Dulles.  Skorzeny claimed central responsibility for setting up the Odessa operation to surreptitiously relocate 50,000 (fifty thousand) Nazis into North and South America with CIA complicity and protection.   The Curious George character was based on George Herbert Walker Bush, who, in the 1930s, spied on Tesla for the Nazis. George Scherf Sr. and Prescott Bush According to Otto Skorzeny, Prescott Bush and George Scherff Sr. were two different men. He claims Prescott Bush adopted George Bush, who was in reality the son of Tesla's German assistant. This is where Skorzeny's photos come in. Adachi looked at a photo taken in Dölitzsch, Germany, which captures Hitler's inner circle—most notably Martin Bormann, Hitler's most trusted assistant and, after WWII, one of the leaders of the Fourth Reich. According to Adachi, Bormann controlled access to Hitler, and thus controlled the fuhrer. Whichever faction Bormann was in controlled Nazi Germany.  That faction is photographed below.  (https://educate-yourself.org/cn/familythatpreystogethercompared24aug07.shtml).   "Christmas Time Group Photo" Dolitsch, Germany, c. 1929   George H.W. Bush, Dorothy Walker Bush and Prescott Bush (c. March 1949)   This is where things get confusing. In the first place, Adachi says the German photo was taken on Christmas in 1929; however the file names for the photos in Adachi's article say 1938. Furthermore, the photos Skorzeny had of Martin Bormann resemble the above 1929 photo with the Bushes, but look nothing like historical photos of Bormann — for example, this one.   Martin Bormann I'm not going to speculate about when the Dölitzsch, Germany, photo was taken; the Cabal had time-travel, so Prescott Bush and George Bush could easily have gone back in time 10 years. What is important is what happened to Martin Bormann, and also the identity of Tesla's assistant, George Scherf. From the one existing photo, taken at the Association of Radio Engineers Banquet in 1915, Scherf looks suspiciously like Walter Krüger. Krüger seems to be another Nazi time-traveler. He was an important WWII general who commanded both the Wehrmacht and the SS — at the same time! After the war, Kruger founded Krüger Corporation, a large military contractor in outer space. It was taken over by his son, Gabriel Kruger.   Walter Kruger   1915 photo George Scherff   Prescott Bush 1916   Tesla and Scherff, Association of Radio Engineers banquet 1915 In his youth, George Scherff had befriended Tesla and worked for him for the latter half of the inventor's life. When interviewed after Tesla's death, Scherff claimed that he began work for the scientist after the suspicious South Fifth Avenue laboratory fire of 1895, working full–time until 1905 and then one day per week thereafter. Biographer O'Neill's inquiries were effectively stonewalled: "Scherff, tight–lipped and businesslike, cannot be induced to talk of Tesla's affairs… [and] refuses to permit any close questions or discussion…"  One George Scherff, Jr. corresponded with the FBI regarding his possession of sensitive Tesla papers as late as 1954, from a residence at 149 Seacord Road in New Rochelle, NY. – Alexander R. Putney, Veil of Invisibility I don't think George Bush was adopted by Prescott Bush, as George looks so much like his mother, Dorthy Walker. Apart from this strong resemblance, Prescott Bush was a member of the Committee of 300, the reptilian hybrids descended from ancient Sumer, and bloodlines are everything to this race. (See Ewen Cameron and Joseph Kennedy) Another rumor about the Bush family is that George Bush's wife, Barbara, is the daughter of Satanist Aleister Crowley. Crowley carried out two important Satanic rituals for the New World Order: one in 1941 with Rudolf Hess and one in 1943 for the Philadelphia Experiment. As for Skorzeny's understanding that George Bush's true name was Scherf, it's possible he was introduced to Tesla's assistant and George Bush with their code-names and he mistakenly believed Scherf was their real name. The best theory I can come up with is that George H.W. Bush was born to Prescott and Dorothy Bush on June 12, 1924. The fact that the family had multiple homes allowed him to come and go without anyone noticing. At around age 13, Bush went back in time 10 years (e.g. 1937 to 1927) to learn espionage in Germany (he seems to be around 16 in the photo). This is when George Bush was introduced to Skorzeny as George Scherf Jr. In 1930, George H.W. Bush traveled to New York with Skorzeny to spy on Tesla by posing as the son of Tesla's assistant, "George Scherf." Bush was still around when Tesla was murdered in 1943, but some time after that (perhaps in 1954, after writing to the FBI), he was age-regressed and time-regressed to 1937 in order to continue his career at Phillips Academy, where he played baseball and was in student government.   Going back to the Dölitzsch, Germany, photo, we notice that Adolf Hitler isn't in it. This is clearly a group of conspirators — the occult power behind the German regime — and two prominent American blue-bloods, George H.W. Bush and Prescott Bush, are in that photo.  All of the men surrounding the Bushes in the picture all ended up in the United States working on Project Omega. Therefore, in my opinion, American bloodline families must have been the puppet masters of the Third Reich.  This means that they didn't merely support Hitler and the Nazis — they controlled them. Prescott Sheldon Bush The biography of Prescott Sheldon Bush states that he was born in 1895 in Columbus, Ohio, one of five children born to Samuel and Flora Bush. Bush attended Yale (graduating in 1916), where he was a member of the Masonic Skull and Bones Society.  Lest the significance of this be lost, Stewart Swerdlow (2002) alleges he witnessed William F. Buckley, among several Illuminati figures, take part in Luciferian rituals (sexual abuse of children, murdering babies and drinking their blood) beneath the Montauk station.  Swerdlow witnessed most of the participants transform into reptilians during these ceremonies (Blue Blood, True Blood: Conflict and Creation).   Prescott Bush, Yale class of 1916   William Averill Harriman, Yale class of 1913   William F. Buckley, another Luciferian, class of 1950   Journalist Ron Rosenbaum (https://www.sott.net/article/302426-Skull-and-Bones-The-disgusting-initiation-ceremonies-at-the-heart-of-the-American-Establishment) claimed that this was the class of 1918, and that the sixth man from the left is Prescott Bush; however, it's clearly George H.W. Bush.  I suspect Rosenbaum's spying on the initiation was set up by Skull and Bones itself.  It seems they put on an act to turn the Luciferian ritual into a farce and make it seem that the yearly sacrifice of a young woman was only pantomime. As a junior at Yale, Prescott Bush joined the Connecticut National Guard.  Having attended officers' training school, he became a captain in an army artillery unit when the United States entered World War I. After the war (which ended on 11 Nov. 1918), Bush worked for companies that manufactured rubber flooring, and started one of his own. In 1921, Bush married Dorothy Walker, whose father went on to head the Wall Street investment firm, W.A. Harriman & Company.  Bush went to work for his fellow bonesman, William Harriman, in 1926, and in 1930, the company merged with the British-American banking firm, Brown Brothers.  Bush became a partner in the new company, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.  This was an investment bank that managed assets and enterprises held by German steel magnate Fritz Thyssen, who became a financier of the Nazi Party.   Dorothy Walker Bush and Prescott Bush. The resemblance between Dorothy and George W Bush (who would be her grandson) is striking. At Brown Brothers Harriman, Prescott Bush managed an asset named Union Banking (UBC).  Through UBC Bush was able to transfer funds, bonds, gold, coal, oil, and steel to Nazi Germany throughout most of WWII.  In 1942 Congress finally forced the firm to stop supporting Germany by passing the Trading With the Enemy Act, but not before Skull and Bones members had become rich. Otto Skorzeny revealed that three American Nazis founded the Internal Revenue Service in 1933 as a private Delaware corporation for Nazi military fundraising. Skorzeny contended that the vast amounts of American tax revenues generated by the IRS went directly into generating the Nazi war build-up from its very inception. The bagman who took the money to Germany was George H. Scherf, Sr. alias Prescott Bush, CEO of Brown Brothers Harriman. The IRS is not part of the Bureau of Internal Revenue – paying income tax to the IRS is not mandatory but voluntary and based on the threat of an audit and financial investigations. Being the frontman for the primary covert finance operation of the Nazi regime, George Scherf, Sr. was indeed the most valuable secret asset of the Third Reich who would work diligently for his entire life to bring about the rise of the Fourth Reich in America. – Alexander R. Putney, Veil of Invisibility According to Otto Skorzeny, after WWII ended, Prescott Bush was instrumental in setting up the country's intelligence apparatus and filling it with former Nazis from the SS—this suggests he had a relationship with President Truman, who was an enthusiastic Freemason. In 1952 Bush was elected to the U.S. Senate for Connecticut (serving from Jan. 1953- Dec. 1962), and he became an advisor to President Eisenhower (Jan. 1953- Jan. 1961).  (https://educate-yourself.org/cn/martinbormannphotostocompare02jul07.shtml)   President Eisenhower and Prescott Bush   George H.W. Bush in Skull and Bones (c. 1948)   George H.W. Bush Yale class of 1948   George H.W. Bush and Prescott Bush Researcher Ken Adachi published two articles in 2007 that revealed that Prescott and George H.W. Bush were Nazi agents and that Nazis had infiltrated the OSS and were behind the creation of the CIA.  The first article begins as follows:  In 1998, 29-year-old Eric Berman of Florida began dating a local girl whose ninety-year-old father possessed "the largest hands I'd ever shaken."  Over time, "Big Ed," as he was known locally, revealed to the younger man that his real name was Otto Skorzeny, legendary SS (Schutzstaffel) commando of World War II fame, personal bodyguard to Adolf Hitler, and subsequent life-long CIA operative.  But that was just the beginning.  Before he died in 1999, Skorzeny revealed to Berman that President George Herbert Walker Bush was German, and that his real name was George Scherf Jr.  He claimed that President Bush's father, Prescott Bush, was really George Scherf Sr., and he was a high-ranking member of the Nazi Party.  Adachi has summarized Skorzeny's revelations as follows:  Skorzeny published books about his World War II exploits in varied editions starting in 1950 (My Commando Operations: The Memoirs of Hitler's Most Daring Commando).  Some of the more explosive highlights of Skorzeny's revelations to Berman include:  The true identity and Nazi-planned subversive mission of George Herbert Walker Bush, 41st President of the United States; alleged to have been brought to America (with Skorzeny as his bodyguard) and covertly adopted by Prescott Bush.   Skorzeny claimed that George H.W. Bush was born George H. Scherf, Jr., and that he was the son of George Scherf, Sr., the German-born assistant to inventor Nikola Tesla. Young George Scherf allegedly spent his first years in America snooping around Tesla's lab, helping his father in the 1930's steal or glean whatever they could of Tesla's work and transfer it to Germany.  Tesla had casually remarked to a couple named Rey, recently emigrated to the United States, of the mischievous prying nature of a "little monkey" around his lab whom he had dubbed "curious George."  This character would later become the basis of the children's book series, Curious George.   Co-author Alan Shalleck, murdered on Feb. 5, 2006, by the CIA  Skorzeny's role (with Reinhard Gehlen) in the assassination of Nikola Tesla by suffocation on January 6, 1943. The pair tricked Tesla on January 5 into revealing the full details of his most important discoveries.  After killing him they stole his most valuable inventions, along with the contents of his safe, which were delivered to Hitler.  (James Rink says these included anti-gravity technology, teleportation, scalar weapons and free energy.) The faked April 1945 suicide of Hitler in the Berlin bunker (corroborating the 1948 CIA interrogation of Gestapo Chief Heinrich Mueller, the Nordon Report, and the Russian 1946 Investigative Committee report to Stalin). Skorzeny's pivotal role in consolidating the intelligence assets of the Nazi Gestapo and the Nazi-infiltrated Office of Strategic Services (OSS) into the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)in 1947, working with George Herbert Walker Bush, Nazi SS spy master Reinhard Gehlen, "Wild Bill" Donovan, and fifth columnist, Allen Foster Dulles.  Skorzeny claimed central responsibility for setting up the Odessaoperation to surreptitiously relocate 50,000 (fifty thousand) Nazis into North and South America with CIA complicity and protection. Skorzeny's claim that Reinhard Gehlen, Josef Mengele, and George H.W. Bush directly participated in the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and his brother, Robert F. Kennedy.  The Curious George character was based on George Herbert Walker Bush, who, in the 1930s, spied on Tesla for the Nazis.  George Scherf Sr. and Prescott Bush   According to Otto Skorzeny, Prescott Bush and George Scherff Sr. were two different men. He claims Prescott Bush adopted George Bush, who was in reality the son of Tesla's German assistant.  This is where Skorzeny's photos come in.  Adachi looked at a photo taken in Dölitzsch, Germany, which captures Hitler's inner circle—most notably Martin Bormann, Hitler's most trusted assistant and, after WWII, one of the leaders of the Fourth Reich. According to Adachi, Bormann controlled access to Hitler, and thus controlled the fuhrer. Whichever faction Bormann was in controlled Nazi Germany.  That faction is photographed below.  (https://educate-yourself.org/cn/familythatpreystogethercompared24aug07.shtml).  In his youth, George Scherff had befriended Tesla and worked for him for the latter half of the inventor's life. When interviewed after Tesla's death, Scherff claimed that he began work for the scientist after the suspicious South Fifth Avenue laboratory fire of 1895, working full–time until 1905 and then one day per week thereafter. Biographer O'Neill's inquiries were effectively stonewalled: "Scherff, tight–lipped and businesslike, cannot be induced to talk of Tesla's affairs… [and] refuses to permit any close questions or discussion…"  One George Scherff, Jr. corresponded with the FBI regarding his possession of sensitive Tesla papers as late as 1954, from a residence at 149 Seacord Road in New Rochelle, NY. – Alexander R. Putney, Veil of Invisibilit The best theory I can come up with is that George H.W. Bush was born to Prescott and Dorothy Bush on June 12, 1924. The fact that the family had multiple homes allowed him to come and go without anyone noticing. At around age 13, Bush went back in time 10 years (e.g. 1937 to 1927) to learn espionage in Germany (he seems to be around 16 in the photo). This is when George Bush was introduced to Skorzeny as George Scherf Jr.  In 1930, George H.W. Bush traveled to New York with Skorzeny to spy on Tesla by posing as the son of Tesla's assistant, "George Scherf." Bush was still around when Tesla was murdered in 1943, but some time after that (perhaps in 1954, after writing to the FBI), he was age-regressed and time-regressed to 1937 in order to continue his career at Phillips Academy, where he played baseball and was in student government.  Going back to the Dölitzsch, Germany, photo, we notice that Adolf Hitler isn't in it. This is clearly a group of conspirators — the occult power behind the German regime — and two prominent American blue-bloods, George H.W. Bush and Prescott Bush, are in that photo.  All of the men surrounding the Bushes in the picture all ended up in the United States working on Project Omega. Therefore, in my opinion, American bloodline families must have been the puppet masters of the Third Reich.  This means that they didn't merely support Hitler and the Nazis — they controlled them.  Prescott Sheldon Bush  The biography of Prescott Sheldon Bush states that he was born in 1895 in Columbus, Ohio, one of five children born to Samuel and Flora Bush.  Bush attended Yale (graduating in 1916), where he was a member of the Masonic Skull and Bones Society.  Lest the significance of this be lost, Stewart Swerdlow (2002) alleges he witnessed William F. Buckley, among several Illuminati figures, take part in Luciferian rituals (sexual abuse of children, murdering babies and drinking their blood) beneath the Montauk station.  Swerdlow witnessed most of the participants transform into reptilians during these ceremonies (Blue Blood, True Blood: Conflict and Creation).  Journalist Ron Rosenbaum (https://www.sott.net/article/302426-Skull-and-Bones-The-disgusting-initiation-ceremonies-at-the-heart-of-the-American-Establishment) claimed that this was the class of 1918, and that the sixth man from the left is Prescott Bush; however, it's clearly George H.W. Bush.  I suspect Rosenbaum's spying on the initiation was set up by Skull and Bones itself.  It seems they put on an act to turn the Luciferian ritual into a farce and make it seem that the yearly sacrifice of a young woman was only pantomime.  As a junior at Yale, Prescott Bush joined the Connecticut National Guard.  Having attended officers' training school, he became a captain in an army artillery unit when the United States entered World War I.  After the war (which ended on 11 Nov. 1918), Bush worked for companies that manufactured rubber flooring, and started one of his own.  In 1921, Bush married Dorothy Walker, whose father went on to head the Wall Street investment firm, W.A. Harriman & Company.  Bush went to work for his fellow bonesman, William Harriman, in 1926, and in 1930, the company merged with the British-American banking firm, Brown Brothers.  Bush became a partner in the new company, Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.  This was an investment bank that managed assets and enterprises held by German steel magnate Fritz Thyssen, who became a financier of the Nazi Party.   At Brown Brothers Harriman, Prescott Bush managed an asset named Union Banking (UBC).  Through UBC Bush was able to transfer funds, bonds, gold, coal, oil, and steel to Nazi Germany throughout most of WWII.  In 1942 Congress finally forced the firm to stop supporting Germany by passing the Trading With the Enemy Act, but not before Skull and Bones members had become rich.  Otto Skorzeny revealed that three American Nazis founded the Internal Revenue Service in 1933 as a private Delaware corporation for Nazi military fundraising. Skorzeny contended that the vast amounts of American tax revenues generated by the IRS went directly into generating the Nazi war build-up from its very inception. The bagman who took the money to Germany was George H. Scherf, Sr. alias Prescott Bush, CEO of Brown Brothers Harriman. The IRS is not part of the Bureau of Internal Revenue – paying income tax to the IRS is not mandatory but voluntary and based on the threat of an audit and financial investigations. Being the frontman for the primary covert finance operation of the Nazi regime, George Scherf, Sr. was indeed the most valuable secret asset of the Third Reich who would work diligently for his entire life to bring about the rise of the Fourth Reich in America. – Alexander R. Putney, Veil of Invisibility  According to Otto Skorzeny, after WWII ended, Prescott Bush was instrumental in setting up the country's intelligence apparatus and filling it with former Nazis from the SS—this suggests he had a relationship with President Truman, who was an enthusiastic Freemason.  In 1952 Bush was elected to the U.S. Senate for Connecticut (serving from Jan. 1953- Dec. 1962), and he became an advisor to President Eisenhower (Jan. 1953- Jan. 1961).  (https://educate-yourself.org/cn/martinbormannphotostocompare02jul07.shtml)  Third Reich:  The first Nazi regime under the control of the Schutzstaffel (SS) and Adolf Hitler.  Their goal of purifying the Aryan race was encouraged by an extraterrestrial group known as the Aryan ETs, but the Nazis were also influenced by the Draco reptilians.  Fourth Reich:  Third Reich Nazis embedded in governments and corporations through Masonic, Illuminati and State Department influence.  Most members came from Base 211 in Antarctica and were part of the Project Omega takeover.  Fifth Reich:  Third Reich Nazis who settled in Antarctica and later established colonies in outer space throughout time.  They don't consider themselves Nazis but compare themselves more to the Teutonic Knight order, which defended Christians during the crusades.  They prefer to be known as Germans and have their own breakaway civilization. (The Fifth Reich call themselves the Federation of Free German Worlds, according to Penny Bradley; but they aren't free of the Draco by any means.)  The German Space Program  The origins of the German space program go back to 1918, when members of the Thule Society started to receive communications from extraterrestrials through medium Maria Orsic (aka Orsitsch).  These communications contained instructions on how to build antigravity devices, temporal displacement technology and portal technology.  In the early 1920s, Thule member Dietrich Eckart invited Adolf Hitler to attend a session with Orsic, as Hitler had already been chosen by the Illuminati to be Germany's leader.  With help from extraterrestrials, the Nazis had by 1936 developed a fleet of flying saucers that included the Rundflugzeug, Vril, Haunebu and Andromedagerat models. – James Rink  It isn't clear whether the ETs who contacted Orsic are the same as the Aryan ETs who supported the Third Reich.  According to Rink, the Aryan ETs are tall blond-haired, blue-eyed humans who are very racist.  Reportedly, high-ranking SS officials such as Heinrich Himmler were enamored of them.  Base 211 – Neuschwabenland  During the 1930s, the Nazis began construction of a base in Queen Maud Land, Antarctica, which was known as Base 211.  In 1938 the first inhabitants settled there, and Germany invaded Poland four months later.  By 1940 the Antarctic base had 300,000 inhabitants, called Neuschwabenlanders, who were provisioned by U-boats.  They used geothermal energy to power their facilities and, later, free-energy technology.  Near the end of the war, the German High Command executed an evacuation plan that allowed thousands of Nazi officials to escape to South America and Antarctica.  General Patton and General Eisenhower were allowed to visit Base 211 and were shocked to see how advanced it was. – James Rink  Operation Highjump  In 1946-1947, President Truman ordered Rear Admiral Richard Byrd to organize a military assault on Base 211.  It was officially called an exploratory expedition, and it included 4,700 men, 13 ships and multiple aircraft.  As most people now know, the fleet was met by flying saucers, probably piloted by ETs, which shot up out of the ocean and destroyed several aircraft and at least one ship.  News reports from Chile mention casualties.  My theory is that Highjump was a setup by Prescott Bush and other Illuminati advisors to pressure the government to make deals with small greys for technology to help the U.S. defend itself against the Nazis. In reality, the Draco were behind the greys, the Nazis and the Illuminati (50% of Illuminati DNA was reptilian). The Draco sent small greys as frontmen, since Draco reptilians are huge and have psionic abilities that can kill people.  On January 17, 1947 at 0700 hours, Szehwach said:  I and my shipmates in the pilothouse port side observed for several minutes the bright lights that ascended about 45 degrees into the sky very quickly . . .  We couldn't identify the lights, because our radar was limited to 250 miles in a straight line.  Over the next several weeks, according to the Soviet report, the UFOs flew close over the U.S. naval flotilla, which fired on the UFOs, which did retaliate with deadly effects. According to Lieutenant John Sayerson, a flying boat pilot:  The thing shot vertically out of the water at tremendous velocity, as though pursued by the devil, and flew between the masts at such a high speed that the radio antenna oscillated back and forth in its turbulence.  An aircraft [Martin flying boat] from the Currituck that took off just a few moments later was struck with an unknown type of ray from the object, and almost instantly crashed into the sea near our vessel. . . . About ten miles away, the torpedo boat Maddox burst into flames and began to sink. . . . Having personally witnessed this attack by the object that flew out of the sea, all I can say is, it was frightening." (https://exopolitics.org/did-us-navy-battle-ufos-protecting-nazi-antarctic-sanctuary-in-1947/)  Project Omega is Born Between 1945 and 1948, the Nazis began infiltrating all world governments.  They resolved to bring about a Fourth Reich in the United States, and gave this project the code name of Omega. – James Rink  Russia made a superhuman effort to defeat the fascists in World War II, and more than 26 million people lost their lives.  The country's primitive industrial base, as well as its ability to feed its people and heat their homes, were challenged to the limit.  But in spite of Russia's enormous sacrifices and heroism, the capitalist class lost no time in portraying the U.S.S.R. as an existential threat.  Overnight, it erected a straw-man enemy and started the Cold War, which provided a justification for the domination of weaker countries, the development of increasingly deadly weapons, and the diversion of vast sums of money to underground bases and secret space programs.  A second flying saucer event took place right after Highjump: on July 4, 1947,  alien space craft crashed near Walker Air Force in New Mexico.  Whether or not this was another staged event by Prescott Bush, the Illuminati once again benefited as the government put measures in place to hide all ET-related information from the public.  This secrecy provided an excuse for a black budget, which would soon dwarf the reported budgets of the Pentagon and the State Department.  The National Security Council and The Majestic Twelve  With the excuse that the U.S. had to compete with the Antarctic Nazis but couldn't inform the public about the ET threat, President Truman in 1947 created the National Security Council and The Majestic Twelve (MJ-12).  These executive orders removed authority over all information and activities related to ETs from the Department of Defense, and, after Truman's term in office, removed them from the office of the president.  The OSS becomes the CIA The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the intelligence agency of the U.S. military during World War II.  Under the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the OSS coordinated espionage activities behind enemy lines for all branches of the United States Armed Forces.  Other OSS functions included the use of propaganda, subversion, and post-war planning.  Although the OSS was officially disbanded one month after the war ended, intelligence tasks were continued by its successor, the Department of State's Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR), and in 1947 by the CIA.  Project Paperclip  With the help of George Herbert Bush, "Wild Bill" Donovan, Allen Dulles, and of course, Otto Skorzeny, elements from the Nazi SS joined the CIA.  Under Project Paperclip the CIA covertly transferred 50,000 Nazi scientists into the American military industrial complex.  These scientists were given new identities and appointed to important research positions.  After the war, money from the black budget allowed them to continue their mind-control research at American military bases, hospitals, and universities. – James Rink  Former Nazis were not only given important positions in U.S. society, but all over the world.  The Illuminati embedded Antarctic Germans in corporations, elite schools, military contractors, research hospitals, banks and embassies, all of which were required to have at least one senior-level German executive.  Larger corporations could have as many as five to ten Germans on their boards of directors.  Additionally, there had to be one German in the executive branch of every government, and these were answerable to the State Department.  The big military contractors in the United States worked on ET technologies.  These included Rand Corporation, TRW, Philco, Lockheed, General Dynamics, Northrop Grumman Space Technology, NASA JPL, and Boeing.  The NSA and the military made sure that these technologies never benefitted mankind: they were only used to control people and to advance the secret space program.  In the deep underground military bases, Paperclip Nazis and the Cabal would hide in luxurious surroundings.  Money to build these underground facilities at first came from loot stolen from Jewish families, and then from CIA drug trafficking and other sources (e.g., foreign aid), which was known as the black budget.  Tesla weapons and technology recovered from UFOs and alien exchanges would ensure their technological superiority.  Here, in their underground strongholds, they continued their research.   Josef Mengele, alias Dr. Green, was called The Angel of Death in the Nazi concentration camps.  The U.S. government downplayed his criminality at the Nuremberg trials.  To confuse investigators about his whereabouts, U.S. officials would report he was in Paraguay or Brazil, or simply that he was dead.  In fact, he was at China Lake Naval Weapons Center in California, where he continued his mind-control experiments. – James Rink  Antarctica  In 1954, the Germans developed technology to selectively block people's memories, which is known as memory-wiping.  Along with time-travel and age-regression, control over peoples' memory opened up the possibility of abducting humans without them remembering it.  Nefarious actors, including the U.S. military and the N.S.A., ended up abducting millions.  They gave abductees complete amnesia, so they had no memory of their previous life.  When they were returned to their normal lives (if they were returned), they had no memory of the abduction, even if they had been in captivity for decades.  With Operation Deep Freeze 1 and 2, the NSA built its own base in Antarctica.  Negotiations over Antarctica took place between the NSA and the Germans between 1955 and 1959.  Eventually they made an agreement, under which the Germans would initially be allowed to abduct 150,000 people of their choosing from all over the world, and thereafter to abduct 55,000 people every year.  According to this agreement, abductees would work for five years, and the Germans would be responsible for housing, feeding, clothing and paying them.  At the end of the five years, the captives would be offered the chance to become German citizens; if they declined, they would have their memories of their enslavement blocked, and they would be age-regressed and time-regressed back to the point of their abduction.  As atrocious as this agreement was, the Germans violated it from the beginning.  Abductees were not paid, and instead of working for five years, they were forced to work 20 years, or even multiples of 20 years, or they were never returned at all. – James Rink  In 1958, President Eisenhower created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.  It's leader was a Project Paperclip rocket scientist named Wernher von Braun.  NASA was established in 1958 for two purposes.  The first was to deceive the public by making it appear that space exploration was at a primitive stage; the second was to channel billions into the real space program.  The United States actually had joint space ventures with the Soviet Union, which were called Solar Warden and Radiant Guardian.  France had a secret space program as well.  While von Braun helped the U.S. government pretend that rockets were the only way to launch craft into outer space, his countrymen were busy colonizing the galaxy.  In the 1960s the Antarctic Germans built a second Antarctic base.  Task groups were created to expand out into the solar system, and bases were built on the Ceres planetoid, moons around Saturn, the Kuiper Belt, and the Oort Cloud.  The Germans would even travel back in time 400 years to settle planets all over the Milky Way galaxy.  Over three billion people now live off-world under various German SSP groups, protected by the Nacht Waffen—the Dark Fleet. – James Rink  Nacht Waffen – Dark Fleet  Dark Fleet starships are massive and can be up to 20 miles long.  When they need to build a new battle cruiser, for example, they simply place an order 20 years in the past.  From their perspective, it is completed immediately.  The officers of the Nacht Waffen consider themselves more German than Nazi.  They include Fifth Reich Germans, who consist of German aristocrats, Teutonic Knights and members of the Thule secret society.  Officer-class uniforms were black and gold.  The enlisted men wore black with silver stripes.  Nazi flags and eagles would be displayed on their ceremonial dress, ships and bases.  Soldiers would wear black BDUs while on combat missions.  They would sometimes wear a metallic mesh body armor designed to collect information from the battlefield.  The Dark Fleet emblem below appears on navigation screens of space ships when coordinates are set for Earth.  In the 1960s, the first five-year loaner program came to an end.  Participants were supposed to be age-regressed and time-regressed to the point when they were abducted.  However, the Germans kept 90 percent of the people they had enslaved.  Authorities made false reports that scientists had died.  In the 1970s, the Cabal discovered that the Germans had memory-wipe technology, which allowed for near-100% informational secrecy.  This is the reason so few people ever became aware of the secret space programs.  The Cabal eventually obtained this technology in 1979. – James Rink  Rink writes that the populations of the German colonies had become self-sustainable by the 1970s.  Funding for the Secret Space Programs  1913:  The Federal Reserve was created.  1930:  The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) was founded and given sovereign immunity.  1936:  The Hague Convention expanded the immunities of the BIS.  These immunities were extend to its members, consisting of 63 central banks and the Federal Reserve System, while other immunities extend to "systemically important institutions."  1945:  The Bretton Woods agreement dictated the assets in the Collateral Accounts were to be managed by the Trillenium Trilateral Tripartite Commission, representing the U.S.A., the United Kingdom and France.  The CIA was tasked with protecting the Collateral Accounts, but quickly began stealing the money.  The TTTC was disbanded in 1995 because it was so corrupt.  1946:  Since 1946, the U.S. has given 76 transnational non-governmental organizations immunities, privileges, and tax exemptions under the BIS umbrella.  1947:  The U.S. was defeated by Nazi Germany in Antarctica.  The surrender agreement with the Nazis requited the U.S. to provide 50,000 slaves to the Nazis each year for its secret space program, for which it would receive some technology.  Nazis were brought into the U.S. through Project Paperclip, and quickly began to take over the O.S.S., and later the C.I.A.  Money from the Collateral Accounts was then channeled off-word to build up the Dark Fleet, and later, other secret projects such as the Interplanetary Corporate Conglomerate (ICC) and Solar Warden/Radiant Guardian.  All of this is controlled by the Triumvirate, a group of crime families.  1955:  President Eisenhower put together an American version of the SSP using technology given to the U.S. by the Nazis.  The administration entered into joint ventures with the Nazis in the hopes of spying on them. Nikola Tesla was Murdered by Otto Skorzeny?   Otto Skorzeny's Deathbed Confession ... edited by Sir Vojislav Milosevic, Director, Center for Counter-terrorism & World Peace Nikola Tesla was one of the greatest and most gifted men ever to have walked this Earth. A huge amount has been written about the prodigal genius of Nikola Tesla and so there may not be a great need to say more here about his life, his brilliance, his vision, and his achievements. But in brief, Tesla was an extraordinary, intuitive, creative genius who, among a great deal else, invented alternating current (which powers the the modern world) and radio (for which Marconi is often falsely given credit). Contemporary biographers of Tesla have deemed him "the father of physics", "the man who invented the twentieth century", and "the patron saint of modern electricity". Much of his life's work was about providing for the world free (i.e. zero-cost) energy, which Tesla envisaged would be broadcast wirelessly through the air or through the Earth itself with no need for powerlines - but despite years of trying, he never obtained the funding to achieve this, one of his dreams.  It has long since been rumored that he invented or developed a significant number of electrical and electronic devices which were decades ahead of their time and would have been of special interest to US military and intelligence circles. Around 300 patents were issued to Tesla in 25 countries, many of them major and far-reaching in concept.  The reality of Tesla's murder was brought home to us after listening to this Youtube presentation. Eric Bermen tells Greg Syzmanski how he discovered his former girlfriend was the daughter of ex-Nazi SS Commando Otto Skorzeny, and thereby quite by chance met the elderly Skorzeny who had been living for years in the US, working as a carpenter with a new identity supplied by the CIA after WWII. Bermen (who sometimes uses the pseudonym Eric Orion) heard a full confession from Skorzeny, who was nearing the end of his life, and was given a shoebox full of over a hundred photographs to substantiate his claims.  Among a number of other highly significant revelations, Bermen heard from Skorzeny that he had personally suffocated Nikola Tesla on January 6, 1943, assisted by fellow-Nazi Reinhard Gehlen. Tesla was then 86 years old.  According to Skorzeny, he and Gehlen had tricked Tesla the previous day into revealing the full details of his most important discoveries. After the murder, they stole the contents of Tesla's safe, which were delivered to Hitler. (Note, of course, that the US military would have fully repatriated this treasure trove of innovation through Project Paperclip at the end of the war.) Otto Skorzeny was Hitler's bodyguard & also an assassin, one of the many Nazis who ex-filtrated to the USA after WWII, as part of Project Paperclip. Many of these Nazi scientists ended up working for NASA, the CIA, and other US secret services. Although he supposedly died in 1975 in Spain, Skorzeny resurfaced in 1999. Otto Skorzeny described how ("contrary to the CIA-written history books") he helped Hitler escape to Austria in a plane flown by a female pilot, Hanna Reitsch.  "Hitler did not commit suicide," Skorzeny recounted. "His double was shot between the eyes, and the dental records proved he was not Hitler. The Americans kept it a secret, worried the truth might anger the Russians."  Despite conflicting literary and historical accounts, Nikola Tesla, a Serb, was born on July 10, 1856, in Smiljan, Lika Serbian province, Austro-Hungarian Empire of that time, or what is now modern-day Croatia. Prior to World War I, Smiljan was on the border of the Austro-Hungarian empire. The son of a Serbian Orthodox priest who rose to the rank of Archbishop, Tesla had the opportunity to study a variety of topics contained in his father's personal library. As a young boy, he accompanied his father on trips to Rome, where he was able to study the lesser-known works stored in the Vatican's vast scientific repository. Upon completing his studies in engineering and physics at the Polytechnic Institute in Graz, Austria, Tesla attended the University at Prague. He demonstrated, early on, an innate ability to solve mechanical and scientific problems, especially in the area of electricity and its applications in power production. After working for Edison Telephone Company subsidiaries in Budapest, Paris, and other cities throughout Europe, Nikola Tesla went to America, to meet the man whose company gave him his first job, Thomas Edison. Tesla found it difficult to work for Edison (due to Edison's reneging on financial promises), but soon found backers to finance his research and development projects and his new inventions.  Financiers, such as John Pierpont (J.P.) Morgan, George Westinghouse and John Jacob Astor were among those who saw the potential in Tesla's pioneering, entrepreneurial spirit to capitalize on his technological discoveries in electricity, wireless communications, and physics.  The only official documentation of Nikola Tesla's arrival to the United States was, again, produced at the Port of New York. [9] On April 7, 1882 a 25-year old Tesla arrived via the SS Nordland, which departed from Antwerp. He had returned, on this trip to the U.S., after lecturing in Paris. Tesla's destination: New York. Tesla immigrated as a "laborer," though this label hardly befit the man who would become the most prolific inventor in history, with some 700 technological patents to his credit. Previous accounts of Tesla's association with Thomas Edison's projects place him in the United States in the 1870s. His many technological discoveries were certain to have drawn the attention of those hungry for world domination and superiority. By and large, Tesla's inventions and his career were excluded from our history books because his inventions and patents were stolen and then weaponized. It was never intended for us to learn about the suppression of Tesla's advanced scientific discoveries, nor about those who profited from their theft - the orchestrators of the master plan. Though much has been written about Tesla's successes and failures, few have detailed the behind-the-scenes financial activities which disclose a Nazi plot to acquire his technology, while research and development costs had largely been paid (unknowingly) by U.S. taxpayers. Many of Tesla's patents fell into Nazi hands prior to and during World Wars I and II. As a result, Tesla continuously found himself in litigation over patent rights and other issues.  Although he had succeeded in winning the majority of his patent lawsuits, his technology had been repeatedly stolen and sold to the German Nazis and other foreign governments, so he never achieved the financial success he deserved. The embezzlement of his capitalization went unchecked throughout Tesla's career. At the time of his death (by murder, according to Skorzeny) on January 6, 1943, Tesla died virtually penniless.  On Good Friday, Orthodox Christmas Eve, he was found in bed, dressed in solemn black suit, arms folded on his chest. They say that a great mind felt his death is coming , he put on the solemn black suit - and then died. An incredible lie and mission impossible, even for a great mind as it was Nikola Tesla. This is the ultimate proof that he was murdered and his killers dressed him in a suit and left him in the bed! His killers: Otto Skorzeny and Reinhard Gehlen. Nikola Tesla's successes in discovering new technologies did not go unnoticed by many industrial capitalists and world governments. In fact, many of his inventions were developed through secret government programs which began soon after his discoveries in alternating current (AC), electromagnetic energy, electric motors, generators, coils, radio transmission, energy-saving devices, and wireless transmission technologies. Since Tesla was often buried deep in research at remote labs, many of his financial and legal affairs were supervised by his closest associate, George H. Scherff. Scherff often advised Tesla about pending patent litigation, contracts, proposals, demonstrations, and financial affairs. As any trusty associate would, Scherff stood beside Tesla through all the ups and downs of his financial nightmares, sometimes arranging for extended credit at the Waldorf-Astoria, where Tesla often resided, or by obtaining a cash advance toward research he had been contracted to perform.  Near the end of his career, Tesla was evicted from the Waldorf for an outstanding bill which exceeded $20,000 - a rather large sum for those days.  As Tesla worked on secret U.S. government projects at Colorado Springs, Colorado, Scherff communicated to Tesla the status of his business affairs. Tesla spoke of hopeful, future financial successes, though Scherff repeatedly delivered the news of dwindling funds. Tesla had begun construction of a wireless power transmission tower ("Wardenclyffe," Shoreham, Long Island) with funds invested by J.P. Morgan. When Morgan discovered that the tower would transmit free electricity and radio waves, he cancelled the project and had the tower dismantled, then sold for scrap. Morgan was not about to allow Americans to receive free electricity, television and radio. Tesla was devastated when he received the news, but continued on with his new inventions. The Rockefeller Connection Records show that 17 Battery Place is the Whitehall Building and was owned by Frank Rockefeller, who, with his brothers William and John D., also owned many of the companies with offices located there. The International Longshoremen's Association (ILA) had its world headquarters there, as well as a variety of oil, mining, and chemical companies. Though Union Sulphur Company was run by its president, Herman Frasch, a German chemist who patented extraction methods for sulphur and petroleum, Frasch also worked for John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company (in New York, New Jersey, and Cleveland, Ohio), developing similar extraction methods. Frank Rockefeller was also an investor of Buckeye Steel Castings in Columbus, Ohio. Buckeye manufactured automatic couplers and chassis for railroad cars owned by the Harrimans, the Rockefellers, and J.P. Morgan. Eventually, Samuel P. Bush was promoted from general manager to president of the company after producing gigantic profits. Samuel P. Bush's association with the Rockefellers and his subsequent position as Director of the War Industries Board afforded him the opportunity to create contracts with Remington Arms during the war, courtesy of Percy Rockefeller. Nikola Tesla's trusted assistant (sometimes referred to as "accountant" or "secretary") George Scherff, Sr., worked at Union Sulphur Company.  Normally, this association would not set off alarms, considering the state of Tesla's affairs. Scherff had every right to earn a decent living in order to support his family. That was "the American Way." But a careful examination of Union Sulphur Co. might reveal that someone was being deceived - Tesla, and Scherff was at the root of this deception.  Who was George Scherff? Who was George Scherff? Better yet, who was George H. Scherff, Sr.? There exists no legitimate record of a George H. Scherff being born in the U.S. from the late-1800s through 1925, yet, George Scherff was Nikola Tesla's assistant/accountant.   If he was born in Germany, could his birthplace shed some light on this mystery? Probably - if they exist (it has become apparent that individuals associated with the Nazi Party commonly have all or parts of their genealogical records expunged - we will explore this further in the section of this article dealing with the "Bush" family tree). In short, Otto Skorzeny claimed that the true identity of George H.W. Bush was "George H. Scherff, Jr., the son of Nikola Tesla's illegal-immigrant, German-born accountant, George H. Scherff, Sr."  Worth a thousand words: But this was not the only bombshell Otto Skorzeny delivered that day in late-1999. Skorzeny, producing a shoe box full of 60-years worth of his personal photographs, showed them to Berman, describing each one in great detail.  The collection featured a photo of a young, majestic Skorzeny in full S.S. Nazi military dress, next to his Fьhrer, Adolph Hitler. Then there were photos of Reinhard Gehlen (S.S. spy and assassin) Dr. Joseph Mengele (the "Angel of Death") Martin Bormann (Hitler aide and S.S. assassin) .  "Skorzeny died on December 31, 1999. His body was cremated, I have a copy of his death certificate, and I saw his ashes. After the war, he helped George Bush found the CIA through Operation Paperclip and ODESSA." Berman recounted how Skorzeny was found "not guilty" at the Nuremburg trials, and then ushered into the CIA. "Some 50,000+ S.S. Nazi war criminals, not just rocket scientists, were brought to America after the war." Skorzeny, about age 90 at the time, was described by Berman as "very focused and very lucid, and he was still very mobile. He was still able to walk around - he was still very impressive and he had about the biggest hands I have ever shaken. He was 6'-4"and was a giant for his day. He towered over me, and I'm 5'-8"."  When asked why he thought Skorzeny entrusted this information to him, Berman responded,  "I was dating one of his daughters. He knew that I'm Jewish, first of all, I'm an honest guy and he thought that I would really try to do something about this and bring some justice, yeah, to these wanted Nazi war criminals. His whole goal was.... they had screwed him over, including George Bush, they screwed him over..... and out of large sums of money over the years. This was his one last way of... you know, getting even with them."  A biographical article about Nikola Tesla appeared in the Tesla Tech, Inc. magazine, "Extraordinary Technology," Volume 4, Number 3, Aug., Sept., Oct., 2006. The article, written by Dustin Wallace, spoke of Tesla's childhood, some of his inventions, and his last days. Wallace wrote (pp. 21-22),  "The Yugoslav Monarchy in Exile was summoned to visit Tesla in the fall of 1942. However, Charlotte Muzar, a secretary, paid Tesla the visit. From his condition upon her arrival she felt as though he may not live through the night. Another friend of Tesla's, Kenneth Swezey visited him during the time and noted that he was existing on warm milk and Nabisco crackers alone. It was apparent that Tesla was nearing the end of his time. By late December of 1942, Tesla began meeting with two U.S. government agents in order to share some of his most sensitive discoveries. These men carried away many of his documents for microfilming."  "On January 4, 1943, Tesla's faithful assistant, George Scherff, visited Tesla for the last time, Tesla was found deceased in his hotel room on the morning of January 8. 1943. He had passed away between those four days since Scherff's visit." The article continued, "Following Tesla's death the United States Office of Alien Property, under the instructions of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, confiscated all of Tesla's papers and property. This was an interesting maneuver considering that Tesla was a United States citizen."  The significance of this benign description of Tesla's inventions and his last days has a direct relationship to the previously unknown claims of Otto Skorzeny. As Skorzeny described (to Berman) in detail his involvement with George H. W. Bush (George H. Scherff, Jr.) in organizing the CIA by absorbing Nazi S.S. agents," he intimated that it was Reinhard Gehlen and himself who murdered Nikola Tesla on January 6, 1943 by strangulation/suffocation. Prior to the murder, Skorzeny and Gehlen "spoke in great detail to Tesla about his most-advanced technologies and then stole the blueprints of his best, most-secret inventions." Were these the "two U.S. government agents" about whom Dustin Wallace wrote? The timing of George Scherff's last visit to Nikola Tesla was suspicious, as well. Skorzeny did not stop with these soul-cleansing disclosures. He went on to describe the aliases of himself Frank Edward P_ _ _ _ _, of south Florida (according to Berman, who claims he is trying to protect Skorzeny's daughter), Reinhard Gehlen (Hank Janowicz, Wayne, N.J.), and Dr. Joseph Mengele (Steven Rabel).  According to Berman,  "Gehlen was tipped off by the FBI about Skorzeny's unveiling of his identity and location, and Gehlen (Janowicz) then went into hiding. Mengele (Rabel), through a series of anti-aging hormone injections, a black hairpiece, and 'cannibalism' has maintained a youthful appearance." Having investigated some of Skorzeny's claims, Berman had contacted the U.S. Justice Department to inform them that Nazi spies were being harbored by certain factions of the U.S. intelligence agencies, in particular, the CIA. "My thoughts were that, uh, I needed to try to bring these wanted SS Nazi war criminal, holocaust killers - terrorists, basically - to justice. I wanted to call our government and tell 'em, 'Hey, that they're still alive.' I wanted to bring 'em to justice. That was my whole intention. I initially had contacted, or tried to contact Eli Rosenbaum, who was the Director of the United States Justice Department, Office of Special Investigations. Basically, they, uh, thought it was a hoax and they told me that I was mistaken, and that according to the CIA, 'all of them were all dead and I was mistaken.' That's what they told me. I was wrong. Tesla is the well-known trademark of entrepreneur extraordinaire Elon Musk and his electric cars, but what about Tesla, the man? More than 100 years ago, Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) invented alternating current (AC), the polyphase alternating current system, which laid the foundation for today's mass-produced power supply. Nikola Tesla, man or magician? From the invention of the particle beam to radar, the electric car, robotics, and remote-controlled drones, Tesla mental-modelled solutions to problems with such clarity of mind that he could visualize the individual parts of a machine or mechanism in three dimensions, then run simulations in his head and check for wear and tear. He even pioneered interplanetary radio communication with Guglielmo Marconi, whom he later fell out with when the US Patent Office mysteriously overturned his patents and effectively credited Marconi with the invention of the radio—who was, in fact, using several of Tesla's patents. Tesla was so far ahead of his time, the genius of many of his early inventions—used to develop the radio and television, fluorescent and induction lighting, and MRIs and X-rays—only came to light after his death. He dreamed of free electricity for all. Tesla's long-held dream was to create a source of inexhaustible, clean energy that was free for everyone. He strongly opposed centralised coal-fired power stations that spewed carbon dioxide into the air that humans breathed. He believed that the Earth had "fluid electrical charges" running beneath its surface that, when interrupted by a series of electrical discharges at repeated intervals, would generate a limitless power supply through immense low-frequency electrical waves. One of Tesla's most extraordinary experiments was to transmit electrical power over long distances without wires or cables—a feat that has baffled scientists ever since. His grand vision was to free humankind from the burdens of extracting, pumping, transporting, and burning fossil fuels, which he viewed as "sinful waste." "Ignorant, unimaginative people, consumed by self-interest" Tesla was eventually undone by what he called "ignorant, unimaginative people, consumed by self-interest"—powerful men who sought to protect the immensely profitable, low-tech industries they had spent a lifetime building. Today's fossil-fuel industry, a legacy of that past, has fought just as hard in recent decades to protect the same interests—afraid of losing their companies to wind and solar energy. A cohort of carbon-captured conspirators The title of a book by journalist Marian Wilkinson refers to a similar network as the Carbon Club: a group of influential climate sceptics, politicians, and business leaders who fought to control climate policy. Wilkinson notes that for decades politicians have fought climate battles fueled by this group, yet the science of climate change has persisted. The concern among these interests was simple: if coal became obsolete, entire economic systems built around it would collapse. In short, societies became comfortable relying on coal-fired power, despite its long-term consequences. No one was afraid, just confused at the spectacle Debates around coal versus renewable energy have often been driven more by politics than science. Public displays, such as presenting coal in political settings as a symbol of reliability, reflected attempts to reassure rather than inform. Base-load power: the last fossil-fuel argument? One enduring concept has been "base-load power," often used to justify continuous coal generation. However, industry experts point out that "base-load" is largely a legacy term tied to the operational limits of coal plants, not a modern necessity. Technology has made base-load power increasingly obsolete. With advances in pumped hydro, wind, solar, and battery storage, energy systems can now operate flexibly without relying on constant coal output. Large-scale battery projects demonstrate that energy can be dispatched faster and more efficiently than traditional power stations. Cleaner energy may not always mean cheaper energy Electricity prices have fluctuated significantly, and while renewable energy can reduce wholesale costs, consumers often see limited savings due to infrastructure, distribution, and retailer margins. Roughly half of an electricity bill comes from infrastructure, a quarter from wholesale energy, and the remainder from operational costs and profit margins. As a result, even major shifts in energy generation do not always translate into large reductions in household bills. Tesla's biggest mistake Tesla's vision prioritized people over profit. According to biographer John J. O'Neill, moments of intellectual brilliance can illuminate the future and guide humanity forward. Tesla's ideas may have offered a path toward clean, abundant energy long before modern climate concerns emerged. However, financial backing was withdrawn when his ideas threatened existing business models. Without funding, Tesla was unable to complete his vision and eventually lived modestly until his death in 1943. The question remains: What would the world look like today if electricity had become clean and free for everyone? Like Tesla, we can only imagine. Meet the Scherff's  Published at: December 26, 2017   You may know them as the Bush family.  What we are taught about history in American schools is not history, but a fairy tale. Better yet, it is propaganda designed to hoodwink an unsuspecting society about its true heritage and the treasonous acts and sabotage that were conceived in order to bring about a New World Order.(Meet The Scherffs)  You are about to learn the real identities of those who have infiltrated your nation on behalf of secret societies intent on bringing about the total slavery of mankind.  What you are about to read is another step beyond research pioneered in the early 90s by author/historian Webster Tarpley based largely on deathbed "clues" provided by former Hitler bodyguard Otto Skorzeny and his box of photographs. Since Skorzeny's death in 1999, the various leads he provided have been followed up and tend to support what, at first blush, would appear to be the unbelievable rantings of an embittered old man.  What remains constant as we pore through publicly available official records, private correspondence, memoirs, newspaper articles, photos and other "clues" is that Bush family records (the ones that exist) are a puzzle palace of inconsistencies and curiosities. Since it is a congressionally established fact that Prescott Bush was in business with the Nazis during WWII, we can safely say that the Bush/Nazi connection existed.  Who are the Bushes?  How did they get connected with the Nazis?  Is the connection still alive through U.S. presidents George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush?  The answers are not as literal as we would like them to be. But we have the testimony of Otto Skorzeny and his photos – especially the one above. So, here we go – the first installment of an investigation that points to a curious conclusion:  The "Bush" family was created to destroy America.  These guys were also part of CIA mind control experiments such as MK-ULTRA. SS officer and physician Joseph Mengele, the notoriously sadistic "Angel of Death" of Auschwitz, escaped Germany to South America after the war. George H. Scherff, Jr., became the 41st President of the United States as GHW Bush and George H. Scherff, Sr., was Nicola Tesla's "trusted assistant."  A Thought Problem  Imagine you were a member of a secret organization whose sole agenda was to control the entire planet. If your plan was to accomplish this goal without being perceived by your intended victims, discretion would be paramount. Your organization would devise a series of historical events that, on the surface, would appear to be everyday, happenstance occurrences (natural disasters, man-made diseases, acts of murder, assassination, terror, manipulation of money and energy supplies, contamination of foods, pollution of natural resources, and war).  The timing of these events would require patience, careful planning, cooperation from others in positions of trust, stealth and deceit. In essence, the whole mission must derive its power through deception and concealment and must have a master plan.  Who were the designers of this master plan? Follow along as we connect the dots.  The Master Plan – Arrival of the Bankers  At the turn of the 20th century, a plan to slowly take over the government of the United States began to unfold. Many works have been written about the Nazi machine that instigated two world wars, though few have traced the footsteps of the foreign financiers and the actors we prefer to call "politicians."  A brief glance at shipping records, passenger manifests, and financial transactions on Wall Street indicates a pattern of deception which was masterminded by this same machine. The level of cooperation from government agencies and their elected officials was not only disgraceful but blatantly treasonous.  In his book, "The Creature From Jekyll Island," [1] author G. Edward Griffin described the secret meetings which created the Federal Reserve in 1913. The architect of the plan, Paul M. Warburg, was a representative of the Rothschild banks in England and France and his brother Felix headed the Warburg banks in Germany and the Netherlands. Of significance is the fact that the first "official" media report about the Federal Reserve occurred three years later.  The True Story Of Nikola Tesla & His Murder  Despite conflicting literary and historical accounts, Nikola Tesla, a Serb, was born on July 10, 1856, in Smilja, Lika province, or what is now modern-day Croatia. Prior to World War I, Smilja was on the border of the Austro-Hungarian empire so, in effect, Tesla was a citizen of Austrian origin.  The son of a Serbian Orthodox priest who rose to the rank of Archbishop, Tesla had the opportunity to study a variety of topics contained in his father's personal library. As a young boy, he accompanied his father on trips to Rome, where he was able to study the lesser-known works stored in the Vatican's vast scientific repository.  Upon completing his studies in engineering and physics at the Polytechnic Institute in Graz, Austria, Tesla attended the University at Prague. He demonstrated, early on, an innate ability to solve mechanical and scientific problems, especially in the area of electricity and its applications in power production. After working for Edison Telephone Company subsidiaries in Budapest, Paris, and other cities throughout Europe, Nikola Tesla went to America, to meet the man whose company gave him his first job, Thomas Edison.  Tesla found it difficult to work for Edison (due to Edison's reneging on financial promises), but soon found backers to finance his research and development projects and his new inventions. Financiers, such as John Pierpont (J.P.) Morgan, George Westinghouse and John Jacob Astor were among those who saw the potential in Tesla's pioneering, entrepreneurial spirit to capitalize on his technological discoveries in electricity, wireless communications, and physics.  The only official documentation of Nikola Tesla's arrival to the United States was, again, produced at the Port of New York. [9] On April 7, 1882 a 25-year old Tesla arrived via the SS Nordland, which departed from Antwerp. He had returned, on this trip to the U.S., after lecturing in Paris. Tesla's destination: New York. Tesla immigrated as a "laborer," though this label hardly befit the man who would become the most prolific inventor in history, with some 700 technological patents to his credit.  Previous accounts of Tesla's association with Thomas Edison's projects place him in the United States in the 1870s. His many technological discoveries were certain to have drawn the attention of those hungry for world domination and superiority. By and large, Tesla's inventions and his career were excluded from our history books because his inventions and patents were stolen and then weaponized. It was never intended for us to learn about the suppression of Tesla's advanced scientific discoveries, nor about those who profited from their theft – the orchestrators of the master plan.  Though much has been written about Tesla's successes and failures, few have detailed the behind-the-scenes financial activities which disclose a Nazi plot to acquire his technology, while research and development costs had largely been paid (unknowingly) by U.S. taxpayers. Many of Tesla's patents fell into Nazi hands prior to and during World Wars I and II. As a result, Tesla continuously found himself in litigation over patent rights and other issues.  Although he had succeeded in winning the majority of his patent lawsuits, his technology had been repeatedly stolen and sold to the German Nazis and other foreign governments, so he never achieved the financial success he deserved. The embezzlement of his capitalization went unchecked throughout Tesla's career.  At the time of his death (by murder, according to Skorzeny) on January 6, 1943, Tesla died virtually penniless.  Tesla's Assistant – George H. Scherff, Sr.  Nikola Tesla's successes in discovering new technologies did not go unnoticed by many industrial capitalists and world governments. In fact, many of his inventions were developed through secret government programs which began soon after his discoveries in,  alternating current (AC)  electromagnetic energy  electric motors  generators  coils  radio transmission  energy-saving devices  wireless transmission technologies  Since Tesla was often buried deep in research at remote labs, many of his financial and legal affairs were supervised by his closest associate, George H. Scherff. Scherff often advised Tesla about pending patent litigation, contracts, proposals, demonstrations, and financial affairs.  Tesla had begun construction of a wireless power transmission tower ("Wardenclyffe," Shoreham, Long Island) with funds invested by J.P. Morgan.  When Morgan discovered that the tower would transmit free electricity and radio waves, he cancelled the project and had the tower dismantled, then sold for scrap. Morgan was not about to allow Americans to receive free electricity, television and radio. Tesla was devastated when he received the news, but continued on with his new inventions.  Who Was George Scherff?  Who was George Scherff? Better yet, who was George H. Scherff, Sr.?  There exists no legitimate record of a George H. Scherff being born in the U.S. from the late-1800s through 1925, yet, George Scherff was Nikola Tesla's assistant/accountant. If he was born in Germany, could his birthplace shed some light on this mystery?  Probably – if they exist.  (It has become apparent that individuals associated with the Nazi Party commonly have all or parts of their genealogical records expunged – we will explore this further in the section of this article dealing with the "Bush" family tree)  Otto Skorzeny – S.S./ODESSA/CIA master spy and assassin  Friends and acquaintances of Nikola Tesla recall him complaining about Scherff's son, George, Jr., always snooping around Tesla's lab. On more than one occasion (probably during the late 1930s), Tesla caught the 14-year old Scherff looking at his notes, poring through his books, and stealing small items from his lab. Tesla gave him the nickname, "Curious George" and likened him to a "mischievous monkey."  According to Skorzeny, (Adolph Hitler's former bodyguard) in a deathbed confession to Eric "Orion" (Eric Berman) in S. Miami, Florida, Tesla, "hated the younger Scherff." In fact, according to Skorzeny, the "Curious George" book and movie were inspired by Tesla' s suggestion.  Curiously, the day before the national theatrical release of the Hollywood production of the Curious George feature-length film, Alan Shalleck, the originator of Curious George (and the man in the Yellow hat), was found murdered under a pile of plastic garbage bags in his driveway in Florida at age 76.  In short, Otto Skorzeny claimed that the true identity of George H.W. Bush was, "George H. Scherff, Jr., the son of Nikola Tesla's illegal-immigrant, German-born accountant, George H. Scherff, Sr."  Skorzeny, producing a shoe box full of 60-years worth of his personal photographs, showed them to Berman, describing each one in great detail. The collection featured a photo of a young, majestic Skorzeny in full S.S. Nazi military dress, next to his Führer, Adolph Hitler. Then there were photos of Reinhard Gehlen (S.S. spy and assassin) Dr. Joseph Mengele (the "Angel of Death") Martin Bormann (Hitler aide and S.S. assassin) and Adolph Hitler (photographed in 1997 at age 107).  The Hitler photo was taken during a "reunion" at the Lake McDonald Lodge in Glacier National Park, Montana, on August 27, 1997. According to Skorzeny, Adolph Hitler was alive and well in the U.S. in 1997!  Skorzeny did not stop there. He produced a photo of a young Skorzeny, Mengele, Bormann, and the family of George H. Scherff, Sr. Seated in the midst of those in the photo was a young George H. Scherff, Jr., who, Skorzeny explained, was trained as a spy and sent to America to work for Adolph Hitler.  "He was given false identification and adopted by Prescott Sheldon Bush as his "son," George Herbert Walker Bush," Skorzeny went on.  "He forged a birth certificate in order to enter the military before he turned 18. He was 16 at the time."  In the family photo, a young Scherff and Bormann both sported a German Navy uniform. Scherff later enlisted in the U.S. Navy as "George H.W. Bush."  In even greater detail, Otto Skorzeny described how ("contrary to the CIA-written history books") he helped Hitler escape to Austria in a plane flown by a female pilot, Hanna Reitsch.  "Hitler did not commit suicide," Skorzeny recounted. "His double was shot between the eyes, and the dental records proved he was not Hitler. The Americans kept it a secret, worried the truth might anger the Russians."  Eric "Orion" (Berman), in a live radio interview on Republic Broadcasting Network, January 17, 2006,  detailed how,  "Skorzeny died on December 31, 1999. His body was cremated, I have a copy of his death certificate, and I saw his ashes. After the war, he helped George Bush found the CIA through Operation Paperclip and ODESSA."  Berman recounted how Skorzeny was found "not guilty" at the Nuremberg trials, and then ushered into the CIA.  "Some 50,000+ S.S. Nazi war criminals, not just rocket scientists, were brought to America after the war."  Skorzeny, about age 90 at the time, was described by Berman as,  "very focused and very lucid, and he was still very mobile. He was still able to walk around – he was still very impressive and he had about the biggest hands I have ever shaken. He was 6'-4" and was a giant for his day. He towered over me, and I'm 5'-8"."  When asked why he thought Skorzeny entrusted this information to him, Berman responded,  "I was dating one of his daughters. He knew that I'm Jewish, first of all, I'm an honest guy and he thought that I would really try to do something about this and bring some justice, yeah, to these wanted Nazi war criminals. His whole goal was…. they had screwed him over, including George Bush, they screwed him over….. and out of large sums of money over the years. This was his one last way of… you know, getting even with them."  Wallace wrote (pp. 21-22),  "The Yugoslav Monarchy in Exile was summoned to visit Tesla in the fall of 1942. However, Charlotte Muzar, a secretary, paid Tesla the visit. From his condition upon her arrival she felt as though he may not live through the night. Another friend of Tesla's, Kenneth Swezey visited him during the time and noted that he was existing on warm milk and Nabisco crackers alone.  It was apparent that Tesla was nearing the end of his time. By late December of 1942, Tesla began meeting with two U.S. government agents in order to share some of his most sensitive discoveries. These men carried away many of his documents for microfilming."  "On January 4, 1943, Tesla's faithful assistant, George Scherff, visited Tesla for the last time. Tesla was found deceased in his hotel room on the morning of January 8, 1943. He had passed away between those four days since Scherff's visit."  The article continued,  "Following Tesla's death the United States Office of Alien Property, under the instructions of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, confiscated all of Tesla's papers and property. This was an interesting maneuver considering that Tesla was a United States citizen."  As Skorzeny described (to Berman) in detail his involvement with George H. W. Bush (George H. Scherff, Jr.) in "organizing the CIA by absorbing Nazi S.S. agents," he intimated that it was Reinhard Gehlen and himself who murdered Nikola Tesla on January 6, 1943 by strangulation/suffocation. Prior to the murder, Skorzeny and Gehlen,  "spoke in great detail to Tesla about his most-advanced technologies and then stole the blueprints of his best, most-secret inventions."   Were these the "two U.S. government agents" about whom Dustin Wallace wrote? The timing of George Scherff's last visit to Nikola Tesla was suspicious, as well.  George H. Scherff, Jr., visits the FBI  Upon the untimely death of Nikola Tesla, perhaps the world's most renowned scientist in history, J. Edgar Hoover, Director of the FBI, received an unexpected visit from George H. Scherff, Jr.  That George Scherff, Sr., Tesla's trusted associate, chose to send his teenage son to visit the FBI's notorious director should have raised a red flag, which it probably did among intelligence agencies. Scherff, Jr., explained to Hoover that he had worked for Tesla and was entitled to his papers and other effects. He also expressed concern that "a foreign government might also be interested in his inventions." [16]  Scherff, Jr., also gave Hoover an address, "149 Secord (sic) Rd., New Rochelle, New York" ["Seacord" is the correct spelling].  FOIA file on "subject, Nikola Tesla":  "Mr. George H. Scherff Jr. advised that he had received two letters… Mr. Scherff stated that he was an associate of Nikola Tesla in 1914 and that for many years, his father had been Dr. Tesla's private secretary. Mr. Scherff said that he had never heard of Leland J. Anderson nor any of the names mentioned in Anderson's letter".  (Anderson had written to the Scherff household seeking information about Tesla's writings. He was working on a thesis for school and had been seeking information from Tesla's associates and communications).  (February 3, 1954) "Mr. Scherff stated that he has quite a bit of Tesla's writings in his possession and he didn't know whether or not they would be of value to a foreign government."  There are several glaring discrepancies and inconsistencies in George H. Scherff, Jr.'s statements to the FBI (or the actual intent of the document).  The author conducted his own research into the background of George H. Scherff, Sr., and, from all indications, concludes that George H. Scherff, Jr., could not have worked for Nikola Tesla in 1914. Scherff, Jr. wasn't even alive in 1914, so he could not have "worked for him" then or at any other time (based upon the numerous accounts about "Curious George," Tesla could not even tolerate him being around his laboratory). It is highly unlikely that Tesla would have hired (or did hire) him.  Other than a book written by John J. O'Neill, 'Prodigal Genius – The Life of Nikola Tesla' in 1944, this was also the only known reference to Tesla having a secretary named "George H. Scherff."   For the greater part of his career, Tesla's secretary was Dorothy F. Skerritt. Both Skerritt and Muriel Arbus worked for him at the time of his retirement, which was forced due to dwindling funds. The acknowledgments at the end of the book describe George H. Scherff as a "business associate," and there is no mention whatsoever of George H. Scherff, Jr. ever having worked for Tesla.  So why did Scherff, Jr., lie to the FBI?  Because it was dangerous for him to tell Hoover the truth about the real identities of his father and himself. Why would George H. Scherff, Sr. send his teenage son to seek papers and other records (belonging to Tesla) from the FBI and not do it himself? Because the Director of the FBI, Herbert J. Hoover, would have recognized him as someone other than George H. Scherff, Sr.  In fact, it is highly plausible that the individual who spoke to the FBI was not a Scherff and was a stand in.  There also remains the most-likely possibility that the Scherff interview was nothing more than a ruse, created by the FBI for the purpose of obfuscating the facts around the government's involvement in the murder of Nikola Tesla, the theft of and covert infringement on his patents, and the money laundering that ensued between a few Wall Street banks and Adolph Hitler's Nazi Party.  Anyone interviewing George H. Scherff, Jr., would have easily recognized that he was not old enough "to have worked for Nikola Tesla in 1914."  Redacted statements in the above-referenced FOIA files indicate something was being covered up. The "Scherff" documents were created to thwart the research efforts of Leland J. Anderson, hide the facts behind Tesla's murder, and dispel any speculation that the FBI stole Tesla's records, research documents and new technologies.  In 1942, less than a year prior to Tesla's untimely death, it was already known that principles at New York's Union Banking Corporation had been caught "Trading with the Enemy," Nazi Germany. Among the principals was George Herbert Walker, Prescott Sheldon Bush, "son" of industrialist Samuel Prescott Bush, who was president of Buckeye Steel Castings in Columbus, Ohio and the director of the Facilities Division of the War Industries Board.  Prescott Sheldon Bush  According to the CIA-written history books and cleverly-crafted political stories, Prescott Sheldon Bush was born on May 15, 1895, in Columbus, Ohio. Ironically, genealogical profiles by some independent researchers and relatives cite his birth date as "March 12 or 13."  Certainly, those tracing the Bushes' roots and family history would have gotten it right. It would also seem that the son of such a prominent industrialist (with powerful political connections in Washington, D.C.) would have been given a birth certificate, clearing up this discrepancy once and for all.  The Bush family "history" claims that the young Prescott "attended the Douglas School," also in Columbus, Ohio. The problem with this claim is that there was no Douglas School in Columbus in 1900, nor for most of the 20th century.  So we now have two disputable claims entered in the history books and current genealogical records: Prescott Bush's date and place of birth and his schooling in Ohio.  Bush's family biography then describes his "enrollment at St. Georges School," a co-ed, Episcopalian prep school near Newport, Rhode Island, from 1908-1913. How he was able to "transfer" to this prestigious school for the wealthy (after attending a school that never existed) leaves room for much speculation. It is unclear how many grade levels the school accommodated only 12 years after its founding in 1896, though today it operates as a high school-level institution, offering courses from grades 9-12.  A recent posting on the St. George's official web site boasted that the "grandfather of our 43rd President" was an alumnus of the school, as if that were to lend further credibility to the Bush school myth.  Today, the school offers a matriculation program with ties to 57 colleges and universities.  Prescott Bush's numerous biographies mention his graduation from Yale University in 1917, though there is no mention of a degree. Before his graduation from Yale, yet another anomaly appears – his enlistment into the Connecticut National Guard in 1916.  The conflicting dates do not end there. While on a tour of duty in the U.S. Army from 1917-1919, Bush is credited, on August 8, 1918, with "deflecting an incoming shell with a bolo knife" and saving the lives of three allied leaders. As a result for his bravery, he,  "received the Cross of the Legion of Honor (from France), the Victorian Cross (from England) and the Distinguished Medal of Honor (from the U.S."  Upon his return to Columbus, Ohio, in mid-1919, Bush found it difficult to explain away the concocted "war hero" story (another anomaly) and "moved to St. Louis."   Still, another story surfaced regarding Prescott Bush's whereabouts during 1918. Having been initiated into Yale University's secret Skull and Bones Society (some say in 1916, others claim it was in 1917), Prescott Sheldon Bush is credited with the grave robbery of the skull of Geronimo, from a graveyard near Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Though this story may only be another myth, by now it has become quite difficult to distinguish PSB biographical fact from fiction.  The overlapping timelines of these stories are enough to raise a few valid questions:  Where and to whom was Prescott Sheldon Bush born?  Why are there no official records of this monumental event?  Where and when did he attend school?  Where are his military records kept, or have they been conveniently "burned to create space in the National Archives" along with his father's wartime business records?  Biographical accounts about Samuel P. Bush (SPB; Prescott's father) claim that he was born at "Brick Church, New Jersey." [20] This information is supported by federal census declarations made by SPB himself. Fortunately, (for those who still seek the truth), there are two more records that show the flagrant deception (concealment) practiced by PSB.  The 1920 U.S. Federal Decennial Census, taken in St. Louis, Missouri, documents a "Prescott S. Bush, age 24, general manager of a hardware company." Biographical accounts describe GSH1/PSB's position as a "warehouse clerk" and not as a "general manager of a hardware store". GSH1/PSB stated that his father's place of birth was "New York."   The 1930 U.S. Federal Decennial Census documented the family of "Prescott S. Bush, age 34." When asked where his father was born, he replied, "Massachusetts."   Even the Federal government's own Census Bureau failed to recognize this inconsistency. How is it that a 24-year-old Yale University graduate (then again a decade later as a 34-year-old banker in New York City) could be so confused about his father's birthplace?  If SPB was not PSB's real father, that would explain everything. Nevertheless, the two statements appear to be blatant lies, not innocent mistakes.  The Bush family biographies do nothing to rectify this dichotomy.  In German genealogical records and databases, the spelling of Scherff (two Fs) is very rare. However, in the United States the opposite is true. The "double-F" spelling is quite common – so common, that there exists but one record of a George "Scherf" ever arriving in the U.S.  Since Otto Skorzeny's familiarity with the Scherf family was usually in the context of espionage, he always assumed the spelling to be the "Americanized" version, which was also the published version in writings about Nikola Tesla. Skorzeny, however, did remember GHS1/PSB's middle initial (H).  The following translation of the surname "Scherf " casts some light on the occult (hidden) meaning of the name.  The following quotes are taken directly from the website, http://scherf.com/club.htm:  "SCHERF: German and Jewish (Ashkenazic); from Middle High German. Habitational name from places in the Rhineland named Scherf, or from Scherfede near Warburg. (Note: The word "Ashkenazic" is derived from the Hebrew word for Germany. Ashkenazic Jews are the Jews of France, Germany, and Eastern Europe.)"  "SCHERFLEIN: "If someone 'gives his Scherflein' as a contribution to something, it means that he gives a little money or other small gift to a greater whole. A 'Scherf' was a halfpenny or obol from the time of the Carolingians (8th and 9th centuries). The name comes from the Latin scripulum meaning the smallest part of a measure or weight and changed from scrip, scirp, scerp to Old High German scerpf and today's SCHERF. Scripulum is the popular version of scrupulum. In popular speech the expression was applied to small coins in general."  This official U.S. government document (to the inevitable chagrin of the INS, the FBI, and the CIA) establishes a "regional" connection between the George H. Scherf family, Martin Bormann, Joseph Mengele, Reinhardt Gehlen and Skorzeny; sets the pre-WWII connection between the Scherfs and these known Nazis into concrete.  This single document, obviously missed in the frantic effort to expunge all records of Nazi spies, went unnoticed until I discovered it in 2007. See the photo Skorzeny produced in which he identified the aforementioned Nazis, including himself and the family of George H. Scherf, Sr., "the illegal-immigrant, German-born accountant of Nikola Tesla."   Source:  Meet the Scherffs - Debt to Success System - Debt to Success System The photo is published in Eric "Orion" Berman's book The Bush Connection (See http //www.thebushconnection.com).  Books Dorril, Stephen. MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service. New York: Free Press, 2000. Hersh, Burton. The Old Boys: The American Elite and the Origins of the CIA. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1992. Isaacson, Walter, and Evan Thomas. The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. Jacobsen, Annie. Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2014. Prados, John. The President's Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations Since World War II. New York: William Morrow, 1986. Talbot, David. The Devil's Chessboard: Allen Dulles, the CIA, and the Rise of America's Secret Government. New York: HarperCollins, 2015. Weiner, Tim. Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA. New York: Doubleday, 2007. Government Documents United States. National Security Act of 1947. Public Law 80-253. July 26, 1947. United States. Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (Church Committee). 94th Cong., 2nd sess., 1976. Articles Truman, Harry S. "Limit CIA Role to Intelligence." The Washington Post, December 22, 1963. These sources support statements such as: The OSS was the wartime predecessor to the CIA. The CIA was established by the National Security Act of 1947. Many early OSS and CIA leaders came from elite universities, Wall Street law firms, and prominent East Coast families. William J. Donovan, Allen Dulles, John Foster Dulles, and Richard Helms were key figures in the early intelligence establishment. Operation Paperclip brought roughly 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians to the United States. The USA   "Americans believe that the United States of America became a separate country following its War of Independence against the British in 1783.   However, what happened was the setting up of the USA as a corporation subject to British maritime law. If you don't believe me then when you watch Obama speaking what do you think the gold border around your flag signifies?   So, if the US is just a corporation, not a country where's the evidence? Should we look for the Queen signing off acts of Parliament which automatically apply to the USA -   legislation.gov.uk/uksi… - it isn't the only one.   The one above was the Queen dictating social security legislation to the IRS. Still think you're independent."  IRS Forces U.S. Citizens To Pay A Percentage Of Their Taxes To The Queen Of The UK Deep State – Political Vel Craft     References USA History   UNITED STATES is a Corporation - There are Two Constitutions - Sovereignty    Federal Reserve - The Enemy of America    A history lesson for Americans. You're still British. – Patriots for Truth    bankruptcyofus.pdf    War and Emergency Powers       Media Release: The People Are the Enemy    "Since March 9, 1933, the United States has been in a state of declared national emergency Powers listed:    Seize property     Organize and control production     Seize commodities     Assign military forces abroad     Institute martial law     Seize transportation     Seize communications     Regulate private enterprise     Restrict travel     Control lives of citizens     (Source attributed in text: Senate Report 93-549)    14th Amendment | AntiCorruption Society      The IRS is not a US government agency.  It is an agency of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Diversified Metal Products v I.R.S et al.  CV-93-405E-EJE U.S.D.C.D.I., Public Law 94-564, Senate report 94-1148 pg. 5967, Reorganization Plan No. 26, Public Law 102-391).        The IMF (International Monetary Fund) is an agency of the U.N.     (Black's Law Dictionary 6th Ed. page 816)        The United States has NOT had a Treasury since 1921 (41 Stat. Ch 214 page 654)        The U.S. Treasury is now the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Presidential Documents Volume 24-No. 4 page 113, 22 U.S.C. 285-2887)        The United States does not have any employees because there is no longer a United States! No more reorganizations. After over 200 years of bankruptcy it is finally over. (Executive Order 12803)        The FCC, CIA, FBI, NASA and all of the other alphabet gangs were never  part of the U.S. government, even though the "U.S. Government" held stock in the agencies. (U.S. v Strang, 254 US491 Lewis v. US, 680 F.2nd, 1239)        Social Security Numbers are issued by the U.N. through the IMF (International Monetary Fund). The application for a Social Security Number is the SS5 Form. The Department of the Treasury (IMF) issues the SS5 forms and not the Social Security Administration. The new SS5 forms do not state who publishes them while the old form states they are "Department of the Treasury". (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111 Subpart B. 422.103 (b))        There are NO Judicial Courts in America and have not been since 1789. Judges do not enforce Statutes and Codes. Executive Administrators enforce Statutes and Codes. (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428, 1 Stat 138-178)        There have NOT been any judges in America since 1789. There have just been administrators.  (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428 1 Stat. 138-178)        According to GATT (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) you MUST have a Social Security number. (House Report (103-826)        New York City is defined in Federal Regulations as the United Nations. Rudolph Guiliani stated on C-Span that "New York City is the capital of the World." For once, he told the truth. (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111, subpart B 44.103 (b) (2) (2) )        Social Security is not insurance or a contract, nor is there a Trust Fund.  (Helvering v. Davis 301 US 619 Steward Co. v. Davis 301 US 548)        Your Social Security check comes directly from the IMF (International Monetary Fund), which is an agency of the United Nations. (It says "U.S. Department of Treasury" at the top left corner, which again is part of the U.N. as pointed out above)        You own NO property!! Slaves can't own property. Read carefully the Deed to the property you think is yours.  You are listed as a TENANT. (Senate Document 43, 73rd Congress 1st Session)        The most powerful court in America is NOT the United States Supreme court, but rather the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. (42 PA. C.S.A. 502)        The King of England financially backed both sides of the American Revolutionary War..   (Treaty of Versailles-July 16, 1782 Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80)        You CANNOT use the U.S. Constitution to defend yourself because you are NOT a party to it!  The U.S. Constitution applies to the CORPORATION OF THE UNITED STATES, a privately owned and operated corporation (headquartered out of Washington, DC) much like IBM (International Business Machines, Microsoft, et al) and NOT to the people of the sovereign Republic of the united States of America.  (Padelford Fay & Co. v The Mayor and Alderman of the City of Savannah 14 Georgia 438, 520)        America is a British Colony.  The United States is a corporation, not a land mass and it existed before the Revolutionary War and the British Troops did not leave until 1796 (Republica v. Sweers 1 Dallas 43, Treaty of Commerce 8 Stat 116, Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80, IRS Publication 6209, Articles of Association October 20, 1774)        Britain is owned by the Vatican. (Treaty of 1213)        The Pope can abolish any law in the United States (Elements of Ecclesiastical Law Vol. 1, 53-54)        A 1040 Form is for tribute paid to Britain (IRS Publication 6209)        The Pope claims to own the entire planet through the laws of conquest and discovery.  (Papal Bulls of 1495 & 1493)        The Pope has ordered the genocide and enslavement of millions of people.(Papal Bulls of 1455 & 1493)        The Pope's laws are obligatory on everyone.  (Bened. XIV., De Syn. Dioec, lib, ix, c. vii, n. 4. Prati, 1844 Syllabus Prop 28, 29, 44)        We are slaves and own absolutely nothing, NOT even what we think are our children.  (Tillman vs. Roberts 108 So. 62, Van Koten vs. Van Koten 154 N.E. 146, Senate Document 438 73rd Congress 1st Session, Wynehammer v. People 13 N.Y. REP 378, 481)        Military dictator George Washington divided up the States (Estates) in to Districts  (Messages and papers of the Presidents Volume 1 page 99 1828 Dictionary of Estate)      "The People" does NOT include you and me. (Barron vs. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore 32 U.S. 243)       It is NOT the duty of the police to protect you. Their job is to protect THE CORPORATION and arrest code breakers. (SAPP vs. Tallahassee, 348 So. 2nd. 363, REiff vs. City of Phila. 477 F. 1262, Lynch vs. NC Dept. of Justice 376 S.E. 2nd. 247)      Every thing in the "United States" is up for sale: bridges, roads, water, schools, hospitals, prisons, airports, etc, etc… Did anybody take time to check who bought Klamath Lake?? (Executive Order 12803)        "We are human capital" (Executive Order 13037)  The world cabal makes money off of the use of your signatures on mortgages, car loans, credit cards, your social security number, etc.         The U.N. – United Nations – has financed the operations of the United States government (the corporation of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) for over 50 years (U.S. Department of Treasury is part of the U.N. see above) and now owns every man, woman and child in America.       The U.N. also holds all of the land of America in Fee Simple.   The good news is we don't have to fulfill "our" fictitious obligations. You can discharge a fictitious obligation with another's fictitious obligation.     Source: Stop The Pirates: These documents are NOT secret! They ARE a matter of Public Record.   

"The biggest question isn't what Iran is doing today. It's who helped build the system in the first place." What happens when we stop looking at history as a series of isolated events and start following the institutions, industries, technologies, and people that shaped the modern world? In this episode, we explore the rise of electricity, chemical warfare, nuclear technology, public health, military research, and the growing influence of experts throughout the twentieth century. From the introduction of electric power and the promises of progress, to the horrors of mustard gas in World War I, to the birth of the atomic age and the spread of nuclear technology across the globe, we examine how major technological revolutions were presented to the public—and what questions were left unanswered. We follow the timeline from poison gas on the battlefields of Europe to secret military research programs, human radiation experiments, Atoms for Peace, the Cold War, and the emergence of a world increasingly managed by scientists, engineers, administrators, and institutions. Along the way, we examine declassified documents, government reports, military planning, historical treaties, and the work of researchers who challenged conventional explanations. A central focus of this episode is Iran's nuclear program and the often-forgotten role played by the United States and Israel in helping establish it during the reign of the Shah. Long before Iran became portrayed as a nuclear threat, Western governments actively encouraged the development of nuclear technology in allied nations as part of a broader geopolitical strategy. We trace how that relationship evolved, how the Iranian Revolution changed the narrative, and how a program once promoted as peaceful became one of the most controversial issues in modern international politics. This episode asks difficult questions about progress, technology, power, and trust. If governments publicly condemned chemical weapons, why did chemical weapons research continue? If the world rejected poison gas, why were stockpiles maintained for decades? How did nuclear technology move from Hiroshima and Nagasaki to being marketed as the future of civilization? Why was Iran encouraged to pursue nuclear technology in one era and condemned for it in another? And why did the public place so much faith in the experts who promised to guide society into a safer and more prosperous future? Topics include electricity, dirty electricity, Samuel Milham, mustard gas, chemical warfare, the Geneva Protocol, human experimentation, nuclear history, Atoms for Peace, Iran's nuclear program, the Shah of Iran, U.S.-Iran relations, Israeli involvement in nuclear development, Cold War research programs, radiation studies, EMF research, smart meters, military technology, public health, scientific authority, and the institutions that helped build the modern world. This is not a story about one technology, one country, or one war. It is a story about the systems, organizations, and ideas that transformed the twentieth century—and the questions that remain a century later. Music:  Buffalo Springfield - For What It's Worth (Official Audio) Chicago and the Ashkenazi Jews   [PDF] [EPUB] Supermob: How Sidney Korshak and His Criminal Associates Became America's Hidden Power Brokers Download Google's true origin partly lies in CIA and NSA research grants for mass surveillance Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action - Wikipedia Samuel MILHAM | Washington State Department of Health, Olympia | retired epidemiology | Research profile Dr. Magda Havas Phd – The ROSE Lab EMF Expert Profile: Magda Havas Declassified Document: "U.S. Army explored using radioactive poisons to assassinate 'important individuals'" - Global ResearchGlobal Research - Centre for Research on Globalization The Ghost Of Soviet  Nuclear Returning -European Nuclear Energy Forum in Bratislava   NM662.qxd Dirty Electricity - Institute for Geopathology SA 5G Radiation Scientific Studies - Get The Facts! Active Denial System - Wikipedia Directed-energy weapon - Wikipedia The Dirty Electricity Story:  GW - DE Story (4-4-12) Dr. Sam Milham: Dirty Electricity - Stealth Trigger of Disease Epidemics and Lowered Life Expectancy (PDF) Dirty Electricity: Invisible role in the US Health Crisis? Human Radiation Experiments: Multimedia: Historical Photographs How chemical weapons became taboo – and why they still are The Moscow Signals Declassified Microwave Mysteries: Projects PANDORA and BIZARRE | National Security Archive (PDF) The "Moscow signal" epidemiological study, 40 years on Israel and nuclear weapons - Wikipedia Previous Episodes: The Nuclear Scare SCAM. Russia Did NOT Develop Their Own Nuclear Atomic Weapon: FDR Sent Them USA Plans.  Was Chernobyl Chemical or Nuclear?   April 26,2026 My Story: Is It Sulfur or Uranium in My Home MURDERING Me? Alzheimer's: Uranium And Sulfur Gases -Can Produce the EXACT Same Symptoms.   April 20, 2026 Poisoned Lungs Are Labeled TB, Toxic Drugs Are Forced, and Doctors, Attorneys, and Governments Enforce an Administrative Eugenics System That Has Killed Millions. January 18, 2026 Tuberculosis (TB), Sulfur, and the Trick: Industrial Lung Injury Was Reclassified as Tuberculosis. TB Killed Millions While Sulfur Exposure Was Omitted from Death Records. January 16, 2026 America Blows Up the world with TNT—Then Claims There's No Evidence of Harm: How the World's Most Common Industrial Explosive Escaped Civilian Health Studies as Mining Expands in Alaska to Power AI. January 4, 2026 Sulfur Exposure, Not Uranium- How Sugar and Alcohol Accelerated Heart Failure, Lung Destruction, and Neurological Damage on Indian Reservations—Then Were Misattributed to Uranium Mining and Reclassified as Mental Illness  December 28, 2025 America Didn't Invent the Nuclear Age — Germany and Hungary Did: Oppenheimer, Einstein, and the European Scientists Behind the U.S. Bomb. What Is Quantum? Why Uranium and Sulfur Were Confused.  December 7, 2025   SMART Meters & Electricity – Bioterrorism Russia-UK and USA Nuclear Power Plants-First Nuclear Power Plant in RUSSIA -UK and USA ALL lied to public. Iraq Plutonium and DNA destruction  Magnesium Discoveries Marijuana IS Medicine NIH Scientist Caught Smuggling MonkeyPox Into US From Africa Do you have a psychopath in your life? The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 How they flip sex with hormones:  Hormones Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Tune in: Podcast Links – Psychopath In Your Life Download Pods here - one click and pods load to any device fully titled and ready to listen to or archive:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life From "Atoms for Peace" to "JCPOA": History of Iranian Nuclear Development. | K=1 Project Nuclear program of Iran - Wikipedia Poland gives Zelensky 'a few more days' to renounce Nazi collaborators — RT World News Did you know the US and Israel helped create Iran's nuclear project? Here's the story — RT World News Electronic harassment - Wikipedia Human radiation experiments - Wikipedia   The U.S. Army explored using radioactive poisons to assassinate important individuals such as military or civilian leaders, according to newly declassified docs.  Approved at the highest levels of the Army in 1948, the effort was a well-hidden secret…. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a308aee-0a44-83e8-beac-7b53511ad16f-4" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a308aee-0a44-83e8-beac-7b53511ad16f-4" data-testid= "conversation-turn-44" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:31117914-2343-4876-94d7-1ad784880de6-13" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:31117914-2343-4876-94d7-1ad784880de6-13" data-testid= "conversation-turn-28" data-turn="assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:31117914-2343-4876-94d7-1ad784880de6-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:31117914-2343-4876-94d7-1ad784880de6-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-turn="assistant"> The Rise of the Modern Biolab In 1910, Germany established the Friedrich Loeffler Institute on Riems Island. The island location was chosen because dangerous animal diseases could be studied away from the mainland. Riems became one of the world's earliest major biological research facilities. During World War I, Germany also expanded chemical warfare research, developing weapons such as chlorine gas and sulfur mustard. This was a separate field from biological research but part of the broader growth of military science. In 1943, during World War II, the United States established Fort Detrick as its primary biological warfare research center. Scientists studied anthrax, botulism, plague, and other infectious agents amid fears that Germany or Japan might develop biological weapons. In 1954, the United States opened Plum Island Animal Disease Center. Like Riems Island before it, Plum Island was separated from the mainland to reduce the risk of animal diseases escaping into livestock populations. Its mission focused on agricultural and animal diseases rather than human biological warfare. By the Cold War, biological, chemical, nuclear, and rocket research were all expanding rapidly. Governments in the United States, Soviet Union, Britain, and elsewhere invested heavily in scientific research related to national security. After Germany's defeat in 1945, many German scientists were recruited by the United States and Soviet Union through programs such as Operation Paperclip. Most people remember the rocket scientists, but expertise from many technical fields was sought by the victorious powers. In 1969, Richard Nixon ended the official U.S. offensive biological weapons program. Three years later, the Biological Weapons Convention prohibited countries from developing and stockpiling biological weapons. However, defensive research remained legal, leaving a distinction between offensive and defensive work that critics argue can sometimes be difficult to define. The next major turning point came in 2001. Following the anthrax attacks that occurred shortly after the September 11 attacks, the United States dramatically increased biodefense spending. Billions of dollars flowed into laboratories, universities, disease surveillance programs, vaccine research, and high-containment facilities. Since then, a global biodefense network has emerged consisting of government laboratories, university research centers, military facilities, and disease-monitoring programs. When people discuss large numbers of "biolabs" today, they are often referring to this broader biodefense infrastructure that expanded rapidly after 2001. Biological Research, Chemical Warfare, and Biodefense Timeline *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:a7e5521d-09a9-46b5-ad59-a41c6a2d8d28-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:a7e5521d-09a9-46b5-ad59-a41c6a2d8d28-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-turn="assistant"> 1910 — Riems Island opens in Germany. The Friedrich Loeffler Institute is established on an island to study dangerous animal diseases away from the mainland. 1914–1918 — During World War I, Germany expands both biological and chemical warfare research. Mustard gas, chlorine gas, and other chemical weapons become major military tools. 1925 — The Geneva Protocol prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons in war, but does not ban research or stockpiling. 1930s–1945 — Germany develops major scientific programs in biology, chemistry, aviation, rocketry, and nuclear physics. 1943 — Fort Detrick becomes the center of the U.S. biological warfare program. Scientists study anthrax, botulism, plague, and other infectious agents. 1943–1945 — The Manhattan Project develops uranium- and plutonium-based nuclear weapons. 1945 — Germany collapses. The United States, Soviet Union, and Britain begin competing for German scientific expertise. 1945–1950s — Operation Paperclip brings German scientists and engineers to the United States. 1954 — Plum Island Animal Disease Center opens. Like Riems Island, it is located offshore to help contain dangerous animal diseases. 1950s–1960s — The Cold War accelerates biological, chemical, and nuclear research on both sides of the Iron Curtain. Most programs are publicly described as defense and preparedness efforts. 1969 — Richard Nixon ends the official U.S. offensive biological weapons program. 1972 — The Biological Weapons Convention prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons, while allowing defensive research. 2001 — Anthrax letters are mailed shortly after the September 11 attacks. The attacks trigger a major expansion of U.S. biodefense funding. 2001–Present — Billions of dollars flow into biodefense programs, disease surveillance, vaccine development, university research, and high-containment laboratories. 2000s–Present — A global network of BSL-3 and BSL-4 laboratories expands. Discussions about U.S.-funded biolabs often refer to this broader biodefense infrastructure rather than a single coordinated laboratory system. Riems Island (1910) established the island-lab model for studying dangerous diseases. Fort Detrick (1943) became America's biological warfare center. Plum Island (1954) continued the island-lab approach for animal disease research. Anthrax attacks (2001) triggered the modern biodefense expansion that led to the large network of laboratories seen today. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:a7e5521d-09a9-46b5-ad59-a41c6a2d8d28-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:a7e5521d-09a9-46b5-ad59-a41c6a2d8d28-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-turn="assistant"> Manhattan Project develops uranium- and plutonium-based nuclear weapons. USA has 94 Nuclear Reactors, China 57, Russia 37, Japan 33, South Korea 26, India 21, Ukraine 15, Iran Has One 1945 The United States develops and uses atomic bombs. 1950s–1960s The Cold War begins. The United States builds hundreds of underground nuclear missile silos across the Great Plains, mainly in Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Colorado, Nebraska, and nearby states. At the Cold War peak, the U.S. had over 1,000 land-based nuclear missiles. The goal was to deter the Soviet Union.  1970 The LGM-30 Minuteman III enters service. It becomes the backbone of the U.S. land-based nuclear force. Congress funded these programs through annual defense appropriations rather than one famous standalone "missile bill." 1991 The Soviet Union collapses. Russia inherits most of the Soviet nuclear arsenal. Both sides had nuclear missiles targeted against each other during the Cold War. The missile fields remain. 1990s–2010s The United States removes many missiles but keeps the system. The force shrinks from over 1,000 missiles to about 400. 2019 The old floppy-disk command system is reportedly replaced. This was not approved through a special "floppy disk bill." It was part of ongoing military modernization funding. The proof comes from public statements by the Air Force and government reports describing the upgrade. Today About 400 nuclear missiles remain in underground silos. Most are in Wyoming, Montana, and North Dakota. You can legally drive near some of them on public roads. Cost Estimated lifetime cost: About $300 billion already spent. About $140 billion planned for the Sentinel replacement program. Bottom Line The United States built a massive missile network during the Cold War to deter the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union disappeared. Russia inherited the nuclear weapons. The missile network remained. About $300 billion has already been spent. About $140 billion more is planned. The floppy disks became famous after a 2016 report from the Government Accountability Office mentioned that parts of the nuclear command system still used 8-inch floppy disks. The public reaction was basically: "Wait, what? They're still using floppy disks?" That generated headlines. Why keep them so long? Ironically, the old system had some advantages: It was isolated.  It wasn't connected to the internet.  It was stable.  It had been working for decades.  The military often prefers: "Old but proven" over "New but untested" for nuclear systems. Why replace them? Not because they got hacked. More because: Parts were becoming difficult to obtain.  Technicians familiar with the systems were retiring.  The equipment was reaching the end of its useful life.  The simple timeline 1970s System built. 1980s–2000s Keeps working. 2016 GAO report reveals floppy disks are still being used. 2019 Air Force says the floppy-disk storage has been replaced. If they were still using floppy disks in 2016, how much of the Cold War infrastructure was still operating underneath the surface?  That's the question that got a lot of people looking deeper. The floppy disk was just the thing everyone could understand. The bigger issue was the age of the entire system. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ad13da36-c971-49f5-bcd0-bbf571cd8446-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ad13da36-c971-49f5-bcd0-bbf571cd8446-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-turn="assistant"> What the floppy disk story told the public was that the government had allowed at least one critical Cold War-era system to remain in operation for decades longer than most people assumed. Once that became public, a reasonable question was: "If this system is still there, what else is still there?" The honest answer is that there were almost certainly many other Cold War-era systems, procedures, facilities, communications networks, continuity plans, and command structures still operating in 2016. Some had been modernized. Some had been partially modernized. Some may have remained largely unchanged. The public simply does not have a complete inventory. What surprised people was not the floppy disk itself. It was the realization that the Cold War had never really been dismantled. The Soviet Union disappeared. The Cold War bureaucracy, nuclear deterrence structure, hardened facilities, command chains, emergency plans, and strategic institutions largely remained in place. The Cold War ended politically. Much of the infrastructure built to fight it did not. How much survived? More than the public knew. How much still survives today? Again, nobody outside the system can answer with certainty. The floppy disk story was one of those rare moments when the curtain opened a few inches and people realized the stage behind it was much older than they had been told. George H.W. Bush (1989–1993) Cold War ends. Missile force remains. Bill Clinton (1993–2001) Missile force remains. George W. Bush (2001–2009) Missile force remains. Barack Obama (2009–2017) Supported nuclear modernization while also pursuing arms-control agreements. Donald Trump (2017–2021) Strongly supported modernization. Joe Biden (2021–2025) Continued Sentinel and nuclear modernization. Donald Trump (2025–present) Sentinel continues moving forward. The interesting part for your timeline is: Presidents changed. Congress changed. Parties changed. The missile system remained. That doesn't mean there was never debate. There has been constant debate. But if you're looking at the root pattern, it is: Cold War ends in 1991. Thirty-five years later, every administration has kept the land-based missile force and funded its continuation in some form. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:6b2322ed-d24b-4363-9edc-53b7bd83f8be-33" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:6b2322ed-d24b-4363-9edc-53b7bd83f8be-33" data-testid= "conversation-turn-68" data-turn="assistant"> The story broke because the Government Accountability Office issued a report in 2016 about aging federal computer systems. Buried in that report was a reference to the nuclear command system still using 8-inch floppy disks. At first, it was just another government report. Then reporters noticed the floppy disk reference. One article led to another, and soon the headline became: "America's nuclear weapons still run on floppy disks." That headline spread everywhere. Most people had never heard of SACCS. Many younger people had never even seen an 8-inch floppy disk. What caught the public's attention was not the technical details. It was the idea that one of the most important military systems in the world was still using technology associated with the 1970s. The military's response was essentially that the system was old but reliable. The public reaction was very different: "If they're still using floppy disks, what else is still running on Cold War technology?" That question became the real story. The floppy disk itself was just the symbol. The larger issue was the age of the entire system. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:6b2322ed-d24b-4363-9edc-53b7bd83f8be-32" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:6b2322ed-d24b-4363-9edc-53b7bd83f8be-32" data-testid= "conversation-turn-66" data-turn="assistant"> 2016 Government report mentions floppy disks. Media notices. Public reacts. Military explains the system still works. 2019 System reportedly upgraded. The floppy disks themselves weren't new information to the military.  The military already knew they were there. The surprise was that the public suddenly found out. In this case, the floppy disk became a symbol of the much larger issue that a lot of Cold War infrastructure was still operating decades after the Cold War ended. Sulfur Mustard (Mustard Gas) Timeline 1822 French chemist César-Mansuète Despretz synthesizes compounds related to sulfur mustard chemistry. At the time, there is no known military application. 1860 British chemist Frederick Guthrie produces sulfur mustard and documents its blistering effects on skin. Researchers immediately recognize it as a highly dangerous substance. 1886 German chemist Victor Meyer develops a more practical method of production. Large-scale manufacturing becomes more feasible. 1914 World War I begins. European armies search for new weapons capable of breaking trench warfare stalemates. 1915 Germany deploys chlorine gas at the Second Battle of Ypres. Chemical warfare enters the modern battlefield. July 1917 Germany introduces sulfur mustard near Ypres, Belgium. The world becomes familiar with what soldiers soon call "mustard gas." Unlike chlorine, sulfur mustard attacks the skin, eyes, and lungs while contaminating terrain, equipment, and trenches for extended periods. Thousands of soldiers suffer severe burns, blindness, and respiratory injuries. 1918 Military planners conclude that chemical weapons can disable armies and create long-term casualties without destroying infrastructure. Research programs expand internationally. 1925 Nations sign the Geneva Protocol. The treaty condemns the use of chemical and biological weapons in war. Yet research, stockpiling, and military planning continue. 1930s The United States, Britain, Germany, Japan, France, and the Soviet Union continue chemical warfare research. Despite public condemnation, chemical weapons remain part of military planning. 1937–1945 Japan's Unit 731 conducts extensive chemical and biological warfare experiments. Human subjects are exposed to various agents under wartime conditions. 1942 The U.S. military begins large-scale mustard gas testing programs involving servicemen. Thousands of soldiers, sailors, and Marines participate. Many are not fully informed about the nature of the tests. 1942–1945 Military personnel are exposed in: Gas chambers Field exercises Patch tests applied directly to skin Equipment and protective clothing trials Researchers study injury patterns, protective gear, environmental conditions, and recovery times. 1942–1943 Segregated experiments are conducted on African American, Puerto Rican, and Japanese American servicemen. Researchers investigate whether race affects susceptibility to mustard gas injuries. The studies later become among the most controversial aspects of the testing program. December 1943 The Bari Harbor disaster occurs in Italy. German aircraft attack Allied shipping. A secret American vessel carrying mustard gas munitions explodes. Hundreds are exposed. The true nature of the cargo remains classified for years. 1944–1945 Additional tests are conducted in desert, tropical, and arctic environments. Researchers attempt to determine how climate affects exposure and protective equipment performance. 1945 World War II ends. Chemical weapons are not used on a large scale by the major combatants in Europe. Large stockpiles remain. 1946 Chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons increasingly become grouped together under the label: Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs). 1950s–1960s Chemical warfare programs continue in several countries. Research increasingly focuses on defense, detection, and protective measures. 1970s Former test subjects begin seeking records and medical recognition. Many discover their participation was classified for decades. 1991 The U.S. government acknowledges many mustard gas testing programs. Veterans gain greater access to records and benefits claims. 1993 The Chemical Weapons Convention is signed. The treaty bans the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons. 1997 The Chemical Weapons Convention enters into force. Nations begin destroying declared stockpiles. 2000s–Present Governments continue destroying remaining chemical weapons inventories. Medical researchers study the long-term effects experienced by veterans and civilian victims. The Historical Contradiction 1917: Mustard gas horrifies the world. 1925: Nations sign the Geneva Protocol condemning its use. 1930s–1940s: Research programs continue. World War II: Thousands of military personnel are exposed in tests. Decades later: Many participants are still seeking records, recognition, and answers. The timeline raises a question that still resonates today: If leaders understood how devastating mustard gas could be in 1917, why did chemical weapons research, stockpiling, and human testing continue for decades after the world publicly condemned it? "Mustard gas horrified the world in 1917. Eight years later the Geneva Protocol condemned chemical warfare. Yet the United States spent the following decades studying mustard gas, stockpiling it, testing it, and exposing thousands of servicemen to it in research programs." *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:31117914-2343-4876-94d7-1ad784880de6-20" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:31117914-2343-4876-94d7-1ad784880de6-20" data-testid= "conversation-turn-42" data-turn="assistant"> The Background World War I shocked the world with large-scale chemical warfare. Starting with chlorine gas in 1915 and later phosgene and mustard gas, soldiers suffered: Blindness Severe skin burns Lung damage Long-term disability Slow, agonizing deaths Millions were exposed, and chemical warfare became associated with a particularly frightening form of suffering. By the end of the war, many nations agreed that something had to be done. 1925 – The Geneva Protocol The treaty's official name was: Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare. The key word is: USE The treaty prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons in war. What It Did NOT Ban The protocol did not prohibit: Research Development Manufacturing Stockpiling Military planning Defensive testing So a nation could sign the treaty and still: Build chemical weapon factories. Maintain stockpiles. Train troops. Conduct research. As long as it claimed it would not be the first to use them. That distinction is huge. Why This Matters Many people hear: "Chemical weapons were banned in 1925." What is more accurate is: "The use of chemical weapons was prohibited, but possession and preparation largely remained legal." That's why chemical arsenals continued to grow in many countries after 1925. The American Position The United States signed the protocol in 1925 but did not ratify it for decades. Meanwhile: Chemical warfare research continued. The Chemical Warfare Service expanded. Industrial production capability remained. Mustard gas stockpiles remained. Military planners argued: "If another nation uses chemical weapons, we must be prepared to respond." That logic became the justification for maintaining the capability. The Historical Contradiction The public message was: "Chemical warfare is so horrible that civilized nations must reject it." The practical military response was often: Chemical warfare is so important that we must continue studying it. The Geneva Protocol condemned the use of poison gas. It did not eliminate poison gas. Nations continued researching it, producing it, stockpiling it, and planning for it. The weapon was condemned. The institutions built around the weapon survived. And that's why the story doesn't end in 1925. In many ways, the Geneva Protocol marks the beginning of the next chapter rather than the end of the first one *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:31117914-2343-4876-94d7-1ad784880de6-21" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:31117914-2343-4876-94d7-1ad784880de6-21" data-testid= "conversation-turn-44" data-turn="assistant"> The Geneva Protocol was a significant step because it established an international norm against the use of chemical and biological weapons in war. But it did not eliminate existing stockpiles, shut down research laboratories, close production facilities, or prevent countries from preparing for chemical warfare. So the public hears: "Mustard gas was banned." While a historian might say: "The use of mustard gas was condemned, but many countries continued to maintain chemical warfare capabilities." 1925 — Geneva Protocol  Official name:  Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare  What it did:  Prohibited the use of chemical weapons in war. Prohibited the use of biological weapons in war.   What it did not prohibit:  Research   Development   Manufacturing   Stockpiling   Military planning   This is why countries could sign the Geneva Protocol and still maintain chemical warfare programs.  1972 — Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)  Official name:  Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction  This went much further than the Geneva Protocol.  It prohibited:  Development   Production   Stockpiling   Not just use.  1993 — Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)  Official name:  Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction  This was the equivalent treaty for chemical weapons.  It prohibited:  Development   Production   Stockpiling   Transfer   Use   And required destruction of declared stockpiles.  It entered into force in 1997.   A lot of people hear:  "Chemical weapons were banned in 1925."  Historically, that's not quite right.  A more accurate timeline is:  1925 Geneva Protocol  "Don't use chemical weapons."  1972  Biological Weapons Convention   "Don't develop, produce, or stockpile biological weapons."  1993  Chemical Weapons Convention   "Don't develop, produce, stockpile, transfer, or use chemical weapons."  That means there was a 68-year gap between the Geneva Protocol and the Chemical Weapons Convention.   1917 — Mustard gas horrifies the world.  1925 — Nations condemn its use.  1930s — Research continues.  1940s — Stockpiles grow.  1940s — Human testing continues.  Cold War — Chemical arsenals remain.  1993 — The world finally agrees to ban development, production, and stockpiling.  That's why the Geneva Protocol and the Chemical Weapons Convention are not the same thing. The first condemned use; the second attempted to eliminate the weapons themselves.  "Most people hear 'Geneva Protocol' and assume the mustard gas story ended. In reality, the treaty was closer to the end of one chapter and the beginning of another." "The public thought the world had closed the book on chemical warfare. Governments kept reading." *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a308aee-0a44-83e8-beac-7b53511ad16f-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a308aee-0a44-83e8-beac-7b53511ad16f-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-46" data-turn="assistant"> This book is written in an urgent attempt to warn you about what I believe to be a global man-made health threat. When Thomas Edison began wiring New York City with a direct current electricity distribution system in the 1880s, he gave us the magic of electric light, heat, and power, but inadvertently opened a Pandora's Box of unimaginable illness and death.  There is a high likelihood that most of the twentieth century "diseases of civilization," including cardiovascular disease, malignant neoplasms (cancer), diabetes, and suicide, are not caused by lifestyle alone, but by certain physical aspects of electricity itself.  The data to prove this has been available since 1930, but no one investigated it. Consequently, the "wars" on cancer and cardiovascular diseases are doomed to failure, because a critical etiologic factor has not been recognized. What's more, these very diseases are now increasing in the population in direct proportion to our increasing exposures to high-technology electrical devices. The electrical part of this story begins with a childhood leukemia cluster centered in Rome, New York, that I studied in the 1960s.  I didn't realize that the cluster was probably caused by radar exposure until many years later when Stanislaw Szmiegelski, a researcher in Poland, reported that radar and radio-exposed military personnel had high rates of leukemia and lymphoma (Szmiegelski 1996). In the United States, the emergence of childhood leukemia in the 1930s, and the spread of the age two-through-five-year peak for the major leukemia of childhood, common acute lymphoblastic leukemia, was strongly correlated with the gradual spread of electrification from urban into rural areas (Milham & Ossiander 2001).  Even today, this childhood leukemia age peak does not appear in non-electrified areas like sub-Saharan Africa. While conducting the childhood leukemia age peak study, a few adult cancers, including female breast cancer, also showed a strong correlation with residential electrification. At that time, I could not believe that 60-Hz magnetic fields could be responsible.  A few years later, a 2004 newspaper article about a cancer cluster in teachers at the La Quinta Middle School in Southern California led me to conduct another study, which showed that high frequency voltage transients (called "dirty electricity" by the utility industry) was a potent universal carcinogen. Dirty electricity rides along on the sixty-cycle sine wave of alternating current (AC) power as high frequency voltage transients, between two and one hundred kilohertz. It also is increasingly found in ground currents returning to utility substations. They are caused by interruptions of current flow and by arcing and sparking. Dirty electricity can be present on electrified wires anywhere and probably has been on them since the beginning of electrification.  Ambient dirty electricity couples capacitively to the human body and induces electrical currents in the body. The La Quinta paper, published in 2008 (Milham & Morgan 2008), led to another study in 2009, "Historical evidence that electrification caused the twentieth century epidemic of disease of civilization" (Milham 2010), which motivated the writing of this book and my warning.  This book will explain how a then seventy-two-year-old retired medical epidemiologist became involved with what turned out to be the most important, interesting, heart-breaking, and difficult series of studies of my long career. The health and mortality effects of electrification happened so gradually, and on such a wide scale, that they went virtually un-noticed, and the major illnesses that can be attributed to them came to be considered "normal" diseases of modern civilization.  Although major cities had electricity at the turn of the last century, it took until the mid-1950s for the last farms in the United States to be electrified. By 1940, more than 90 percent of all the residences in the northeastern United States and California were electrified. In 1940, almost all urban residents in the United States were, therefore, exposed to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) in their residences and at work, while rural residents were exposed to varying levels of EMFs, depending on the progress of rural electrification in their states. In 1940, only 28 percent of residences in Mississippi were electrified, while five other Southern states had less than 50 percent of residences electrified.  Eleven states, mostly in the Northeast, had residential electrification rates above 90 percent. In the highly electrified Northeastern states and in California, urban and rural residents could have similar levels of EMF exposure, while in states with low levels of residential electrification, there were potentially great differences in EMF exposure between urban and rural residents. It wasn't until 1956 that these differences finally disappeared. What was already known by then, but not appreciated, was that urban death rates were much higher than rural rates for cardiovascular diseases, malignant neoplasms, diabetes and suicide in the 1930 and 1940 United States mortality data. In 1930, urban cancer death rates were 58.8 percent higher than rural cancer death rates.  Rural death rates were significantly correlated with the level of residential electric service by state for most of the causes examined. It is difficult to believe that mortality differences of this magnitude could go unexplained for more than seventy years after first being reported, and forty years after they had actually been noticed and commented upon. I suspect that in the early part of the twentieth century, nobody was looking for answers or knew how to properly frame the appropriate broad epidemiologic questions. By the time EMF epidemiology began in earnest in 1979, the entire population was exposed to EMFs. There was then simply no way to find an unexposed control group; therefore, all studies were potentially biased. Cohort studies, which follow groups of people forward in time, were by then using EMF-exposed population statistics to compute expected values, and case-control studies were comparing more exposed cases to less exposed controls.  By way of analogy, the mortality from lung cancer in two-pack-a-day smokers is more than twenty times that of non-smokers, but only three times that of one-pack-a-day smokers. Extending that analogy to EMFs, after 1956, the EMF equivalent of a non-smoker ceased to exist in the United States, with the exception of the small Amish population. The inescapable conclusion of these findings is that the twentieth century epidemic of the so-called diseases of civilization, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and also suicide, was caused by electrification and the unique biological responses we have to it. A large proportion of these diseases may therefore be preventable. We are an electrochemical soup at the cellular and organ level. Think of ECG (electrocardiogram), EEG (electroencephalogram), and EMG (electromyogram). We evolved in a complex EMF environment with an interplay of natural terrestrial and extra-terrestrial EMF sources from solar activity, cosmic rays, and geomagnetic activity. I believe that our evolutionary balance, developed over the millennia, has been severely disturbed and disrupted by man-made EMFs.  I believe that man-made EMFs, especially dirty electricity, are chronic stressors and are responsible for many of the disease patterns of electrified populations. The very good news is that there are reasonable ways to eliminate or reduce this hazard if society chooses to do so, in ways that can make modern life far safer without requiring us to live in the dark.  It took nearly fifty years of education and experience to place me in a position to really understand what the La Quinta school cancer data meant. Please join me in a trip back to Albany, New York, in 1932 as I explain how I got to here from there Continues:  Dirty Electricity: Electrification and the Diseases of Civilization Early Smart Meter Patent Applications  1970s–1980s: There were patents related to automatic meter reading (AMR) technologies. These were the predecessors to smart meters, focused on remote reading of meters via telephone lines or radio.  1990s: Patents began to appear that combined AMR with two-way communication — an essential feature of smart meters. Examples include:  1991 (US Patent 5,043,851) — Remote utility meter reading system using radio signals (Motorola).  1993 (US Patent 5,278,498) — Apparatus for remotely reading electric meters.  Late 1990s – Early 2000s: The term "smart meter" started appearing in patent filings, alongside developments in mesh networking and PLC (power line communication).  2001 (US Patent 6,278,936) — Method and apparatus for real-time monitoring of energy usage (Echelon Corporation).  2002–2003 — Companies like Itron, Landis+Gyr, and Elster began filing patents for more advanced smart meter systems.   Smart Grid & Smart Meter Surge  2004–2008: Major patent activity coincided with the early smart grid initiatives and utility pilot projects.  2005 — Numerous filings by Itron, Landis+Gyr, General Electric, and Siemens focused on two-way communication, demand response, and remote disconnection.  2007 — The U.S. government began emphasizing smart grid tech under the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA 2007), sparking a flurry of patents.  Key Patent Holders  Itron (formerly Schlumberger's metering division)  Landis+Gyr  Elster  General Electric  Siemens  Silver Spring Networks  Motorola (earlier AMR technology)  Echelon  Cisco (later networking layers for smart grids)   Timeline Summary  Period  Activity  1970s–1980s  AMR (remote meter reading) patents, no "smart meter" term  1990s  Early two-way communication patents  2000–2004  First smart meter patents focused on real-time monitoring  2005–2008  Surge in smart meter & grid patents, mesh networking, demand-response features  2009+  Continued innovation — integration with smart homes, renewables, and IoT    Company  Country of Origin  Primary Role  Itron  United States (Washington)  Smart meters, AMI systems, utility networks  Landis+Gyr  Switzerland  Electric, gas, water smart meters  Elster (now Honeywell)  Germany  Utility metering and AMI systems  General Electric (GE)  United States  Grid infrastructure, metering technology  Siemens  Germany  Smart-grid and utility systems  Silver Spring Networks  United States  Smart-grid networking (acquired by Itron)  Motorola  United States  Early wireless AMR communications  Echelon  United States  Utility networking technology  Cisco  United States  Networking layer for smart grids  A few interesting ownership connections emerged over time:  Itron acquired Schlumberger's electricity metering division in 2004.   Itron acquired Silver Spring Networks in 2018, combining two major smart-grid players.   Landis+Gyr was founded in Switzerland in 1896 and was later acquired by Toshiba of Japan in 2011.   Elster eventually became part of Honeywell.   Cisco  Extensive U.S. Department of Defense and federal government contracts.   Cisco networking equipment is used throughout military and government networks.   However, those contracts are generally for networking infrastructure rather than smart meters specifically.   Motorola  Long history of military, intelligence, public-safety, and government communications contracts.   One of the strongest military connections on the list.   Siemens  Historically supplied military-related industrial technologies in various countries over many decades.   Modern Siemens is primarily an industrial and infrastructure contractor.   General Electric  Major military contractor.   Builds aircraft engines, defense electronics, and numerous military systems.   One of the largest defense-connected firms on your list.   For the dedicated smart-meter firms:  Itron  Primarily utility focused.   Receives government and utility contracts.    Landis+Gyr  Utility metering company.   No major defense-contractor profile comparable to GE, Motorola, or Cisco.   Silver Spring Networks  Utility networking company.   Built communications networks for electric grids.   No major public profile as a defense contractor before acquisition by Itron.   Echelon  Focused on industrial networking and smart-grid communications.   Not generally considered a major military contractor.   If you follow the patent trail, a surprisingly large amount of smart-meter innovation ended up concentrated among a relatively small group of firms. By the mid-2010s, licensing agreements and acquisitions meant companies such as Itron, Landis+Gyr, GE/Aclara, Elster, and Silver Spring were interconnected through patents, standards groups, acquisitions, and technology-sharing arrangements.   So when people ask, "Who owns the smart-meter technology?" the answer is not hundreds of independent companies. It is a fairly small circle of multinational firms, mostly from the United States, Switzerland, and Germany, whose technologies became increasingly interconnected through mergers, licensing, and industry standards.   The more interesting question may not be whether these companies had military contracts—many large technology companies do—but whether the same networking, telemetry, and remote-management technologies developed for utilities later became part of broader "smart city," critical infrastructure, and Internet-of-Things systems. That overlap is well documented, particularly for Itron, Cisco, and Silver Spring Networks.  What are Smart Meters? A smart meter is an electronic device that records information such as consumption of electric energy, voltage levels, current, and power factor, and communicates the information to the consumer and electricity suppliers Smart meters are spreading worldwide, but adoption rates vary enormously. By the end of 2024, more than 1.8 billion smart meters had been installed globally, and deployment is still accelerating.  Countries with very high penetration include: China — essentially complete nationwide rollout.  Japan — near completion.  United States — among the highest adoption rates globally, around 80% penetration.  Italy and Spain — early adopters with widespread deployment.  Countries where smart meters exist but are still being rolled out include: India — massive ongoing deployment, with hundreds of millions planned.  Bangladesh — deployment underway in urban areas but far from universal.  South Korea — rollout experienced delays but continues.  Taiwan — relatively low penetration compared with neighbors.  Countries with limited deployment or major resistance are more common in parts of: Sub-Saharan Africa  Central Asia  Some Middle Eastern countries  Smaller developing nations with less developed electric grids.  An interesting exception is West Bengal, where the state government announced in 2025 that residential smart meters would not be installed, despite broader smart-meter initiatives elsewhere in India.  So the trend is not really "which countries don't have smart meters?" anymore. The more accurate question in 2026 is: Which countries have not yet reached large-scale adoption? Those tend to be lower-income countries, countries with aging grid infrastructure, or places where governments have delayed deployment due to cost, politics, or public opposition. Meanwhile, major economies in North America, Europe, and East Asia are moving toward smart meters as the default electricity meter.  Prepaid service. That is one of the reasons utilities like smart meters. They can support remote reading, remote connection/disconnection, and prepaid billing systems, which are being promoted in a number of developing countries including parts of South Asia and Africa. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:383d38b0-eff5-4de6-b09d-89972459403b-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:383d38b0-eff5-4de6-b09d-89972459403b-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-8" data-turn="assistant"> Countries with operating nuclear power plants include: United States France China Russia Japan South Korea India Canada Ukraine United Kingdom Sweden Finland Spain Belgium Switzerland Czech Republic Slovakia Hungary Romania Bulgaria Slovenia Armenia Iran Pakistan Mexico Brazil Argentina South Africa United Arab Emirates Belarus Countries with no operating nuclear power plants include: Australia New Zealand Norway Denmark Ireland Austria Portugal Greece Egypt (building, but not yet operating) Saudi Arabia Bangladesh (building, not yet operating) Most countries in Africa, Central America, Southeast Asia, and the Caribbean. One thing that stands out is that many advanced industrial countries operate large electrical grids without nuclear power at all. For example: Australia relies heavily on coal, gas, solar, and wind. Norway relies mostly on hydroelectric dams. Denmark relies heavily on wind power. Austria relies heavily on hydroelectric power. So nuclear power is not required to run a modern industrial society. Many countries have chosen other energy sources. The countries that built large nuclear programs after the 1950s were generally those with: Large industrial economies. Strong engineering sectors. Cold War strategic interests. Access to uranium or nuclear technology partnerships. That's why you tend to see nuclear power concentrated in North America, Europe, Russia, East Asia, and a handful of countries in the Middle East and South Asia rather than evenly spread across the globe. If the premise is that "dirty electricity" is being generated by the electrical system itself rather than by nuclear reactors, then the existence or absence of nuclear power plants becomes largely irrelevant. Within that fictional framework: A coal plant could generate it. A natural gas plant could generate it. A hydroelectric dam could generate it. A wind farm connected to power electronics could generate it. A solar farm could generate it. A nuclear plant could generate it. That would mean countries such as: Australia Norway Denmark Austria Could all be affected despite having no operating nuclear power plants. In real-world electrical engineering, "dirty electricity" usually refers to high-frequency voltage transients, harmonics, switching noise, and waveform distortions riding on top of the normal 50/60 Hz power signal. Those effects can arise from many sources throughout a grid, including: Industrial equipment. Variable-speed motor drives. Inverters used in solar and wind systems. Switching power supplies. Transmission equipment. Certain consumer electronics. They are not unique to nuclear generation. If the hidden mechanism is tied to the electrical network itself, then a hydro-powered country like Norway and a coal-powered country like Australia could experience the same phenomenon. The common denominator would be the electrical infrastructure, not the fuel source used to generate the electricity. Could "Dirty Electricity" Be a Successor Concept? Dirty electricity refers to: Electrical pollution: spikes, surges, and erratic frequencies on power lines not part of the clean 50/60 Hz sine wave. Some researchers (and conspiracy theories) suggest this could: Stress human biology Contribute to chronic illness Be deliberately engineered as an invisible weapon (biological, psychological, or population control) Hypothetical connection to military doctrine: After giving up radiological poisons, covert programs may have: Explored EMF (electromagnetic fields) and power grid-based ways to affect populations subtly. Focused on long-term, deniable methods (e.g., sickening people via their environment rather than overt weapons). There are Cold War-era projects in the U.S. and Soviet Union that explored: EMF and microwave effects on health and behavior. Technologies like Project Pandora (U.S. microwave mind control studies, 1950s-1970s). Soviet "Woodpecker" signal and studies of low-frequency EM weapons. Is There Evidence of Intentional Dirty Electricity as a Weapon? What we know: There is no declassified proof that dirty electricity was developed as a military population-control tool. But military interest in EMF and its biological effects is well-documented. Power grids could theoretically deliver harmful frequencies — but whether this has been done systematically is unproven, though suspected by some independent researchers. Theory Fits a Known Pattern Secret programs start with overt weapons (radiological, nuclear, chemical). When politically risky or impractical, shift to: Covert technologies (EMF, psychological ops, environmental manipulation). Long-term, low-profile strategies. PHASE 1: Radiological Warfare Research (1948–1954) Army memos (1948): Plans to create weapons that would: Assassinate individuals with radioactive poisons. Contaminate land to deny its use. Combine explosives + radioactive material. Why it faded: Nuclear bombs were seen as more practical. Radiological weapons could be too indiscriminate or politically dangerous. PHASE 2: Shift to Invisible, Covert Technologies After 1954, Cold War focus included: Psychotronic weapons / mind control studies (MKULTRA, ARTICHOKE, BLUEBIRD). Project Pandora (1950s-1970s): U.S. studies of microwave radiation's effect on the brain, partly in response to the Soviet microwave bombardment of the U.S. embassy in Moscow. Soviet and U.S. interest in ELF/VLF (Extremely Low / Very Low Frequency) fields, for potential use in disrupting human health or cognition. DARPA + CIA: Early research on electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects, brainwave entrainment, and crowd control using directed energy. PHASE 3: Possible Domestic Application — Power Grid & Dirty Electricity By the 1970s-80s, researchers like Dr. Robert O. Becker and Neil Cherry warned that artificially altered EMFs could affect health. "Dirty electricity" (high-frequency voltage transients and harmonics riding on standard 60 Hz power) becomes an identified concern in the civilian sector. Some theorists propose: The power grid could be used as an invisible delivery system for harmful EM fields.  Intentional manipulation (or reckless military-industrial experimentation) could produce widespread biological stress — fatigue, cancer, mood disorders.  Why this fits a Cold War mindset Radiological weapons = crude, detectable, diplomatically dangerous. EMF / power grid weapons = invisible, deniable, continuous, adaptable to "peacetime" or slow-acting population control. This shift mirrors the larger trend of: Moving from kinetic to silent weapons. Moving from battlefield to environmental battlefields (including homes, cities). Map of Research Sites + Power Grid Projects Key military labs and test sites linked to radiological and EMF research (e.g., Dugway Proving Ground, Fort Detrick, MIT Lincoln Laboratory, NSA facilities). Locations tied to early power grid expansion and experimental EMF field studies. Summary of Key Documents Declassified Army memos on radiological weapon projects (1948–1954). Project Pandora and Moscow Signal studies (1950s–70s). Early government and scientific reports on EMF health effects and dirty electricity. Relevant patents and whistleblower statements. From Radiological Weapons to Dirty Electricity Year Event/Project Description 1948 U.S. Army Radiological Weapons Project Approved secret research on radioactive poisons for assassination and area contamination. Prototypes aimed by 1950. Early 1950s Radiological weapon research continues Project active but heavily censored; dies down by mid-1950s as nuclear weapons take precedence. 1950s–1970s Project Pandora / Moscow Signal U.S. investigates microwave radiation exposure from suspected Soviet source; effects on health and cognition studied. 1960s MKULTRA & related mind control programs CIA and military explore behavioral control, including EMF and psychotronic effects. 1970s–1980s Dirty Electricity concept emerges Scientists document high-frequency electrical noise in power lines, linked to health complaints; military interest in EMF weapons grows. 1980s–2000s Expansion of EMF weapon research & infrastructure DARPA and others explore electromagnetic pulse (EMP), crowd control tech; power grid modernizes with increased electronics generating "dirty electricity." 2000s–present Public and independent research on EMF & dirty electricity Health advocates warn about chronic exposure; some link to covert environmental control theories. Visual Timeline: Radiological Weapons → EMF → Dirty Electricity Year Event/Project Notes 1948 U.S. Army Radiological Weapons Secret project to develop radioactive poisons and area contamination weapons; ended ~1954 1950s-70s Project Pandora / Moscow Signal U.S. studied microwave radiation effects from Soviet embassy targeting; brain effects studied 1950s-70s MKULTRA, ARTICHOKE CIA mind control and psychotronic weapons research, including EMF and chemical methods 1960s-80s Dirty Electricity Identified Researchers documented electrical pollution in power lines, linked to health concerns 1980s-2000s DARPA, military EMF weapons research Research into EMP, crowd control via EMF; power grid and electronics modernization increased "dirty electricity" 2000s–present Public awareness and independent research Growing concerns about chronic EMF exposure; some theories about covert use in population control Map of Research Sites and Power Grid Projects Key Sites linked to radiological and EMF research: Dugway Proving Ground, Utah — Chemical and radiological testing. Fort Detrick, Maryland — Biological and radiological research. MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts — EMF, radar, and directed energy research. NSA facilities in Maryland & Fort Meade — Intelligence and EMF research. Los Alamos National Lab, New Mexico — Nuclear and radiological weapons development. Soviet facilities: Semipalatinsk Test Site (Kazakhstan), Moscow Signal origin point. Power Grid-related: Major U.S. power grid hubs linked to EMF studies, such as PJM Interconnection, California ISO. Early experimental sites for EMF transmission (Bell Labs, 1960s). Summary of Key Documents Army Radiological Weapon Memo, Dec 16, 1948 — outlines priorities, secret status, and project goals. Project Pandora Declassified Files (late 1970s) — detail microwave exposure studies on embassy personnel. Scientific papers on dirty electricity — e.g., Dr. Robert Becker's work on EMF biological effects (1970s-80s). Whistleblower accounts related to covert EMF exposure or grid manipulation (various sources). Phase 1: Radiological Warfare (1948–1954) The Army explored radioactive poisons, contamination weapons, and radiological warfare concepts. The idea was simple: If nuclear weapons could destroy cities instantly, radioactive materials might be used to contaminate people, land, ports, transportation corridors, and military facilities over long periods. By the mid-1950s, interest shifted toward nuclear weapons, which were viewed as more practical and decisive. Phase 2: Cold War Research into Invisible Effects (1950s–1970s) As the Cold War intensified, both the United States and Soviet Union investigated technologies that could influence human beings without conventional explosives. Research areas included: Microwave radiation  Electromagnetic fields  Behavioral modification  Psychological operations  Brain and nervous system effects  Programs such as Project Pandora emerged from concerns about microwave exposure directed at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow. At the same time, CIA programs such as MKULTRA, ARTICHOKE, and BLUEBIRD explored methods of influencing human behavior. Phase 3: Environmental Exposure Questions (1970s–Present) As modern electrical infrastructure expanded, scientists began studying whether chronic exposure to electromagnetic fields could affect human health. Researchers including Robert O. Becker examined biological responses to electromagnetic exposure. Concerns later expanded to include: High-voltage transmission lines  Radiofrequency emissions  Wireless communications  Harmonics and transient voltages on power systems  So-called "dirty electricity"  The Open Question At this point the historical record splits into two paths. Documented: Governments researched radiation.  Governments researched chemical agents.  Governments researched biological agents.  Governments researched electromagnetic effects.  Governments researched psychological manipulation.  Not Documented: A declassified program using dirty electricity as a population-control weapon.  Evidence that power grids have been systematically modified to intentionally sicken civilian populations.  Proof that modern electrical systems are being used as a covert radiological-style warfare platform.  That distinction is important because it allows the audience to see what is established versus what remains speculative. "Did dirty electricity replace radiological warfare?" "Once governments demonstrated an interest in radiological, chemical, biological, psychological, and electromagnetic research, where did those lines of research lead after the Cold War?" Human Radiation Experiments Human Radiation Experiments Timeline Year / Period Event / Program 1944–1947 Early atomic era secret experiments on civilians and military personnel began. Example: plutonium injections into hospital patients without consent (18 patients between 1945–1947). Patients at Oak Ridge, Chicago, Rochester, and San Francisco hospitals were injected with plutonium or uranium to study excretion and retention. 1945–1947 In an experiment at Vanderbilt University, 829 pregnant women were given "vitamin drinks" containing radioactive iron (without consent) to study placental transfer of radioisotopes. At least 7 babies later died from cancers and leukemia; mothers suffered rashes, anemia, hair/tooth loss, and cancer. 1940s–1950s Numerous tests on military personnel during atomic bomb tests (Nevada Test Site, Pacific Proving Grounds). Long-term tracking of radiation exposure effects on soldiers. 1950s–1960s Radioactive isotopes fed to children at institutions like the Fernald School (Massachusetts). Prisoners' testicles irradiated in Oregon and Washington as part of government-sponsored studies of radiation's effect on fertility. 1963–1973 130 inmates at Washington and Oregon prisons subjected to testicle irradiation experiments run by the University of Washington for the U.S. government. Inmates were exposed to over 400 rads (≈2,400 chest x-rays) in 10-minute sessions. Participants later won a $2.4 million settlement in 2000. 1960s–1970s Fallout studies and continued radiation experiments on vulnerable populations, including civilians near nuclear test sites. 1974 First major press coverage of unethical radiation experiments, as public scrutiny of medical abuses (e.g., Tuskegee Syphilis Study) grew. 1986 Congressman Ed Markey released "American Nuclear Guinea Pigs: Three Decades of Radiation Experiments on U.S. Citizens", documenting 31 major experiments involving ~695–700 human subjects without proper consent. 1993 National exposés (e.g., Albuquerque Tribune) brought renewed attention; President Clinton ordered a federal investigation. 1994–1995 The Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments (ACHRE) conducted a detailed review, declassified documents, and issued a final report confirming and expanding prior findings.   Examples of Experiments 18 hospital patients injected with plutonium (1945–1947) 829 pregnant women given radioactive iron at Vanderbilt (1945–1947) Prisoners' testicles irradiated in Oregon and Washington (1950s–1970s) Radioactive cereal fed to mentally disabled children at Fernald School (1950s) Military personnel deliberately exposed during nuclear weapons tests (1940s–1950s) Fallout exposure studies on civilians near test sites (1950s–1970s) Summary of Years The core period of human radiation experimentation ran from: 1944 to ~1974 (≈30 years of active experiments) with public exposure, investigations, and accountability processes unfolding: 1974 to 2000 *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:fc18b1fc-3c68-48e4-8e03-eba9cba2c346-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:fc18b1fc-3c68-48e4-8e03-eba9cba2c346-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-turn="assistant"> Mustard Gas Tested on American Military In 1943, the U.S. Navy exposed its own sailors to mustard gas. Officially, the Navy was testing the effectiveness of new clothing and gas masks against the deadly gas that had proven so terrifying in the first World War. The worst of the experiments occurred at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington. Seventeen and 18-year old boys were approached after eight weeks of boot camp and asked if they wanted to participate in an experiment that would help shorten the war. Only when the boys reached the Research Laboratory were they told the experiment involved mustard gas. The participants, almost all of whom suffered severe external and internal burns, were ignored by the Navy and, in some cases, threatened with the Espionage Act. In 1991, the reports were finally declassified and taken before Congress Mustard Gas Human Experiments Timeline Year / Period Event / Program 1917 Sulfur mustard ("mustard gas") first used on a large scale during. Tens of thousands of military casualties suffer severe burns, blindness, and lung damage. 1918–1930s Military researchers in multiple countries study long-term effects of mustard gas exposure on soldiers and workers. 1942–1945 U.S. military conducts secret mustard gas experiments on approximately 60,000 service members. Subjects exposed in gas chambers, field exercises, and laboratory tests, often without informed consent. 1942–1945 African American, Japanese American, and Puerto Rican troops deliberately included in some studies to investigate claims about racial differences in susceptibility. 1943 The disaster involving the cargo ship exposes hundreds of Allied personnel and civilians to mustard gas released from a secret U.S. stockpile aboard the SS John Harvey. 1944 Naval Research Laboratory and military researchers continue blister-agent testing on sailors and soldiers under controlled conditions. 1940s–1950s Follow-up studies monitor exposed veterans for skin, respiratory, eye, and cancer-related effects. 1970s Growing public scrutiny of military human-subject experimentation begins following revelations about various Cold War-era programs. 1991–1993 Previously classified mustard gas testing programs receive significant media attention. Thousands of veterans learn details of their participation for the first time. 1993 U.S. government begins declassification efforts concerning mustard gas and Lewisite testing programs. 2005 The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs formally acknowledges many mustard gas test participants and expands compensation eligibility for certain exposure-related illnesses. Examples of Mustard Gas Experiments Gas chamber exposure tests on Army personnel. Field exercises in contaminated training areas. Patch tests applying mustard agent directly to skin. Navy sailor exposure studies. Race-comparison studies involving segregated military units. Long-term medical monitoring of exposed veterans. Common Reported Effects Short-Term Severe skin blistering Eye burns and temporary blindness Coughing and breathing difficulty Nausea and fatigue Long-Term Chronic lung disease Scarring of skin and eyes Increased risk of respiratory cancers Chronic bronchitis and emphysema Persistent eye damage   Related Chemical Warfare Research Year / Period Program 1942–1945 Mustard gas testing on military personnel 1942–1945 Lewisite exposure studies 1950s–1960s Chemical defense research involving blister agents 1953–1973 Chemical and biological testing overlaps with broader Cold War human-subject programs, including some projects associated with 1960s–1970s Continued research into protective equipment, decontamination, and chemical-agent effects Summary of Years The major period of documented U.S. mustard gas human experimentation ran approximately: 1942–1945 (active wartime testing) Followed by: 1945–1993 (monitoring, secrecy, classification, and eventual disclosure) 1993–2005+ (declassification, investigations, and veterans' compensation efforts) The mustard gas program involved far more people than many of the radiation experiments. Historians generally estimate roughly 60,000 U.S. service members participated in mustard gas and Lewisite testing during World War II, making it one of the largest known military human-subject exposure programs in U.S. history. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:fc18b1fc-3c68-48e4-8e03-eba9cba2c346-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:fc18b1fc-3c68-48e4-8e03-eba9cba2c346-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-turn="assistant"> Large-scale documented human exposure or experimentation programs conducted by governments, militaries, prisons, hospitals, or research institutions, a few categories show up repeatedly: Period Substance / Agent Examples 1910s–1940s Mustard Gas & Lewisite Military exposure tests on soldiers 1932–1972 Syphilis   1940s–1970s Radiation & Radioisotopes Plutonium injections, radioactive feeding studies 1940s–1970s Biological Agents Bacteria dispersal tests, exposure studies 1950s–1970s LSD & Psychoactive Drugs CIA-linked research under 1950s–1970s Chemical Warfare Agents Nerve-agent and protective-equipment studies 1950s–1970s Prison Medical Experiments Drug testing, dermatology studies, pharmaceutical trials 1960s–1970s Defoliants & Herbicides Military and occupational exposure research involving Agent Orange-related chemicals Various Sterilization Programs Eugenics-based procedures in prisons, hospitals, and institutions Various Infectious Disease Studies Deliberate exposure or withholding treatment in some research programs Some of the most frequently discussed categories are: Radiation Plutonium injections Radioactive iron given to pregnant women Radioactive food studies Prisoner irradiation Fallout exposure monitoring Chemical Warfare Mustard gas Lewisite Nerve-agent research Riot-control agents and protective equipment testing Biological Warfare Military researchers also studied how diseases spread and how populations might respond to biological attacks. Some experiments involved releasing bacteria considered relatively harmless at the time to study dispersion patterns. Mind-Altering Drugs During the Cold War, researchers investigated: LSD Mescaline Barbiturates Amphetamines Various combinations intended to study interrogation, behavior, and cognition Eugenics and Sterilization From the early 1900s into the 1970s, many states authorized forced sterilization of people deemed "unfit," including institutionalized patients and prisoners. Infectious Disease Research Researchers sometimes deliberately exposed volunteers to pathogens or withheld effective treatment to observe disease progression. The most famous U.S. example remains the Tuskegee study. Environmental or industrial substances that later generated major health controversies, another list often includes: Asbestos Lead Radium Uranium Agent Orange PCBs Dioxins Beryllium Certain pesticides Coal dust and silica dust Those were generally not secret military experiments in the same sense as mustard gas or plutonium injections, but many workers and communities were exposed before the risks were fully understood or publicly acknowledged. From a historical perspective, the three most recognizable U.S. government-related categories are probably: Radiation (1940s–1970s) Chemical warfare agents such as mustard gas (1940s) Behavioral/drug experiments including LSD research (1950s–1970s) Those categories generated some of the largest later investigations, declassifications, and public controversies Declassified Document: "U.S. Army explored using radioactive poisons to assassinate 'important individuals'" US Considered Radiological Weapon by Robert Burns October 9, 2007. Associated Press. In one of the longest-held secrets of the Cold War, the U.S. Army explored the potential for using radioactive poisons to assassinate "important individuals" such as military or civilian leaders, according to newly declassified documents obtained by The Associated Press. Approved at the highest levels of the Army in 1948, the effort was a well-hidden part of the military's pursuit of a "new concept of warfare" using radioactive materials from atomic bombmaking to contaminate swaths of enemy land or to target military bases, factories or troop formations. Military historians who have researched the broader radiological warfare program said in interviews that they had never before seen evidence that it included pursuit of an assassination weapon. Targeting public figures in such attacks is not unheard of; just last year an unknown assailant used a tiny amount of radioactive polonium-210 to kill Kremlin critic Alexander Litvinenko in London. No targeted individuals are mentioned in references to the assassination weapon in the government documents declassified in response to a Freedom of Information Act request filed by the AP in 1995. The decades-old records were released recently to the AP, heavily censored by the government to remove specifics about radiological warfare agents and other details. The censorship reflects concern that the potential for using radioactive poisons as a weapon is more than a historic footnote; it is believed to be sought by present-day terrorists bent on attacking U.S. targets. The documents give no indication whether a radiological weapon for targeting high-ranking individuals was ever used or even developed by the United States. They leave unclear how far the Army project went. One memo from December 1948 outlined the project and another memo that month indicated it was under way. The main sections of several subsequent progress reports in 1949 were removed by censors before release to the AP. The broader effort on offensive uses of radiological warfare apparently died by about 1954, at least in part because of the Defense Department's conviction that nuclear weapons were a better bet. Whether the work migrated to another agency such as the CIA is unclear. The project was given final approval in November 1948 and began the following month, just one year after the CIA's creation in 1947. It was a turbulent time on the international scene. In August 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested its first atomic bomb, and two months later Mao Zedong's communists triumphed in China's civil war. As U.S. scientists developed the atomic bomb during World War II, it was recognized that radioactive agents used or created in the manufacturing process had lethal potential. The government's first public report on the bomb project, published in 1945, noted that radioactive fission products from a uranium-fueled reactor could be extracted and used "like a particularly vicious form of poison gas." Among the documents released to the AP – an Army memo dated Dec. 16, 1948, and labeled secret – described a crash program to develop a variety of military uses for radioactive materials. Work on a "subversive weapon for attack of individuals or small groups" was listed as a secondary priority, to be confined to feasibility studies and experiments. The top priorities listed were: 1 – Weapons to contaminate "populated or otherwise critical areas for long periods of time." 2 – Munitions combining high explosives with radioactive material "to accomplish physical damage and radioactive contamination simultaneously." 3 – Air and-or surface weapons that would spread contamination across an area to be evacuated, thereby rendering it unusable by enemy forces. The stated goal was to produce a prototype for the No. 1 and No. 2 priority weapons by Dec. 31, 1950. The 4th ranked priority was "munitions for attack on individuals" using radioactive agents for which there is "no means of therapy." "This class of munitions is proposed for use by secret agents or subversive units for lethal attacks against small groups of important individuals, e.g., during meetings of civilian or military leaders," it said. Assassination of foreign figures by agents of the U.S. government was not explicitly outlawed until President Gerald R. Ford signed an executive order in 1976 in response to revelations that the CIA had plotted in the 1960s to kill Cuban President Fidel Castro, including by poisoning. The Dec. 16, 1948, memo said a lethal attack against individuals using radiological material should be done in a way that makes it impossible to trace the U.S. government's involvement, a concept known as "plausible deniability" that is central to U.S. covert actions. "The source of the munition, the fact that an attack has been made, and the kind of attack should not be determinable, if possible," it said. "The munition should be inconspicuous and readily transportable." Radioactive agents were thought to be ideal for this use, the document said, because of their high toxicity and the fact that the targeted individuals could not smell, taste or otherwise sense the attack. "It should be possible, for example, to develop a very small munition which could function unnoticeably and which would set up an invisible, yet highly lethal concentration in a room, with the effects noticeable only well after the time of attack," it said. "The time for lethal effects could, it is believed, be controlled within limits by the amount of radioactive agent dispersed. The toxicities are such that should relatively high concentrations be required for early lethal effects, on a weight basis, even such concentrations may be found practicable." Tom Bielefeld, a Harvard physicist who has studied radiological weapons issues, said that while he had never heard of this project, its technical aims sounded feasible. Bielefeld noted that polonium, the radioactive agent used to kill Litvinenko in November 2006, has just the kind of features that would be suitable for the lethal mission described in the Dec. 16 memo. Barton Bernstein, a Stanford history professor who has done extensive research on the U.S. military's radiological warfare efforts, said he did not believe this aspect had previously come to light. "This is one of those items that surprises us but should not shock us, because in the Cold War all kinds of ways of killing people, in all kinds of manners – inhumane, barbaric and even worse – were periodically contemplated at high levels in the American government in what was seen as a just war against a hated and hateful enemy," Bernstein said. The project was run by the Army Chemical Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Alden H. Waitt, and supervised by a now-defunct agency called the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project. The project's first chief was Maj. Gen. Leslie R. Groves, the Army's head of the Manhattan Project that built the first atomic bombs. The radiological project was approved by Groves' successor, Maj. Gen. Kenneth D. Nichols. The released documents were in files of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project held by the National Archives. Among the officials copied in on the Dec. 16 memo were Herbert Scoville, Jr., then the technical director of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project and later the CIA's deputy director for research, and Samuel T. Cohen, a physicist with RAND Corp. who had worked on the Manhattan Project. The initial go-ahead for the Army to pursue its radiological weapons project was given in May 1948, a point in U.S. history, following the successful use of two atomic bombs against Japan to end World War II, when the military was eager to explore the implications of atomic science for the future of warfare. In a July 1948 memo outlining the program's intent, before specifics had received final approval, a key focus was on long-lasting contamination of large land areas where residents would be told that unless the areas were abandoned they probably would die from radiation within one to 10 years. "It is thought that this is a new concept of warfare, with results that cannot be predicted," it said. Source: Declassified Document: "U.S. Army explored using radioactive poisons to assassinate 'important individuals'" - Global ResearchGlobal Research - Centre for Research on Globalization Chemical Warfare: From Battlefield Gas to Radioactive Poisons Ancient World The use of poison in warfare is nearly as old as warfare itself. Long before modern chemistry, armies understood that certain substances could weaken, disable, or terrorize an enemy. Water wells were sometimes contaminated. Smoke from burning sulfur, pitch, and other materials was used during sieges. Defenders attempted to drive attackers away with toxic fumes while attackers occasionally sought to poison food and water supplies. These methods were crude and unreliable, but they established an idea that would persist throughout military history: Victory could sometimes be achieved not only through swords and bullets, but through invisible substances that attacked the body itself. 1675 One of the earliest efforts to restrict poison warfare came with the Strasbourg Agreement between France and the Holy Roman Empire. The agreement prohibited the use of poisoned bullets. The fact that such an agreement existed demonstrates that military leaders already recognized poison weapons as uniquely disturbing and difficult to control. Even centuries ago, there was concern that certain methods of warfare crossed moral boundaries. 1914 When World War I began, most political and military leaders expected a short war. Many believed the fighting would be over within months and that the troops would be home by Christmas. Instead, Europe became locked in a brutal stalemate. Massive armies dug defensive trenches stretching for hundreds of miles across France and Belgium. Between the opposing trench lines lay a deadly strip of land known as No Man's Land. Again and again, generals ordered large offensives in hopes of breaking through enemy defenses. The result was often the same: tens of thousands of casualties for only a few miles of ground, and sometimes no ground at all. Machine guns, artillery, barbed wire, and fortified positions had given defenders a significant advantage. Traditional battlefield tactics no longer seemed capable of producing victory. As the deadlock continued and casualties mounted, military planners began searching for new weapons and new methods that might break the stalemate. Out of that search came one of the most controversial developments in modern warfare: the large-scale use of poison gas. 1915 The modern age of chemical warfare began during World War I. On April 22, 1915, during the Second Battle of Ypres in Belgium, German forces released more than 150 tons of chlorine gas from thousands of cylinders positioned along their front lines. As the wind shifted, a massive greenish-yellow cloud drifted toward Allied positions. Many of the French, Algerian, and Canadian troops facing the attack had never encountered poison gas before and had little understanding of what was approaching them. At first, some soldiers reportedly watched the strange cloud with curiosity. Within minutes, that curiosity turned to terror. The chlorine gas attacked the lungs and respiratory system. Men began coughing violently, choking, and gasping for air. Their eyes burned, their throats tightened, and many felt as though they were drowning while still standing on dry ground. Panic spread through the trenches as soldiers fled from an enemy they could not see and could barely understand. The attack created a gap several miles wide in the Allied lines and demonstrated that chemistry had become a new weapon of modern warfare. Military planners around the world immediately took notice. What had begun as an experiment on a battlefield in Belgium quickly sparked an international race to develop chemical weapons, protective masks, and new methods of chemical warfare. The age of poison gas had arrived. 1915–1918 What began at Ypres quickly grew into a full-scale chemical arms race. Once the major powers realized that poison gas could influence the battlefield, every nation feared being left behind. Germany, Britain, France, Russia, and eventually the United States poured resources into developing new chemical agents, delivery systems, and protective equipment. Chlorine gas was only the beginning. Scientists soon developed phosgene, a far more lethal gas that was often difficult to detect. Victims exposed to phosgene sometimes appeared relatively unharmed at first, only to suffer catastrophic lung damage hours later. Because of its effectiveness, phosgene would ultimately be responsible for a large percentage of chemical warfare deaths during the war. The next major development was mustard gas, first introduced on the battlefield in 1917. Unlike earlier gases, mustard gas was not primarily designed to kill quickly. Instead, it was designed to incapacitate. It contaminated trenches, equipment, uniforms, and entire sections of the battlefield for days or even weeks. Soldiers exposed to mustard gas suffered severe chemical burns to the skin, eyes, and respiratory system. Many survived, but carried the effects for the rest of their lives through blindness, chronic lung disease, disfigurement, and other permanent injuries. As the war continued, chemical weapons became increasingly sophisticated. Artillery shells filled with chemical agents allowed armies to deliver poison gas deep behind enemy lines. Gas masks became standard equipment, and soldiers lived with the constant fear that a sudden attack could arrive without warning. By the end of World War I, chemical warfare had become a permanent feature of modern military planning. Historians estimate that roughly one million casualties were attributed to chemical weapons during the conflict. While chemical weapons accounted for a relatively small percentage of total wartime deaths, their psychological impact was enormous. Artillery shells could be heard. Infantry attacks could be seen. Poison gas was different. It often arrived silently, carried by the wind, attacking the lungs, eyes, and skin before soldiers fully understood what was happening. The fear of an invisible weapon that could drift across a battlefield and turn the very air into a threat left a lasting impression on an entire generation of soldiers. 1917–1918 March 1917 Nicholas II abdicates during the Russian Revolution of 1917. This effectively ends Romanov rule after 304 years. When the United States entered World War I in April 1917, it found itself joining a conflict in which poison gas had already become a major feature of battlefield warfare. American military leaders quickly recognized that the nation was unprepared for this new form of combat. The European powers had spent years developing chemical weapons, protective equipment, and specialized training, while the United States was only beginning to understand the scale of the challenge. In response, the U.S. Army rapidly expanded its chemical warfare capabilities. Specialized units were organized to handle chemical agents, develop defensive measures, and train troops in gas warfare. Research facilities were established, scientists were recruited, and factories began producing chemical agents and protective equipment on a large scale. American military planners understood that chemical warfare involved two separate challenges. The first was offensive: understanding how chemical agents could be used on the battlefield. The second was defensive: protecting American soldiers from the gas attacks they would inevitably face. Gas masks, protective clothing, detection methods, and decontamination procedures became major areas of research. The urgency of wartime mobilization accelerated cooperation between the military, universities, scientists, and industry. What had begun as an emergency response to conditions on the battlefields of Europe soon evolved into a permanent military capability. By the end of World War I, the United States had established the foundations of what would become its modern chemical warfare establishment. The organizations, research programs, industrial partnerships, and military doctrines developed during these years would continue to influence American chemical warfare policy for decades after the fighting ended. 1918 House of Habsburg  -Traditionally traced to the 10th century; major power from 1273 - 1918 The guns finally fell silent on November 11, 1918. After more than four years of fighting, millions of deaths, and unprecedented destruction, World War I came to an end. Across Europe and North America, many hoped the conflict had taught humanity a lasting lesson about the dangers of modern industrial warfare. Among the most shocking aspects of the war had been the widespread use of poison gas. Images of blinded soldiers, men struggling to breathe, and survivors carrying permanent physical injuries left a deep impression on both military leaders and the public. To many observers, chemical warfare represented a new level of horror—one in which science and industry had been harnessed to attack the human body in ways previous generations could scarcely imagine. There was a widespread belief that civilized nations would never again tolerate such weapons. If any lesson had emerged from the trenches of Europe, it seemed to be that poison gas had crossed a line that should never be crossed again. Yet even as the war ended, military planners around the world were reaching a different conclusion. Rather than abandoning chemical warfare, many governments quietly continued their research programs. Military leaders feared that if they stopped developing chemical weapons while potential rivals continued, they would place themselves at a dangerous disadvantage in a future conflict. Laboratories remained open, stockpiles were maintained, and scientists continued searching for more effective chemical agents. Publicly, nations condemned the horrors of poison gas. Privately, many prepared for the possibility that the next war would involve even more sophisticated forms of chemical warfare than the last. The world hoped chemical warfare had died in the trenches of World War I. Instead, it entered a new phase. 1918–1925 Although the public associated poison gas with some of the worst horrors of World War I, military planners were not prepared to abandon chemical warfare. The war had demonstrated that chemical weapons could influence battles, disrupt enemy operations, and force armies to devote enormous resources to defense and protection. As a result, many governments concluded that chemical warfare would likely remain a feature of future conflicts. Across Europe, the United States, and the Soviet Union, chemical weapons stockpiles were retained rather than destroyed. Research laboratories that had been established during the war continued operating, often under military supervision. Scientists studied existing chemical agents while searching for compounds that might be more effective than those used in the trenches of World War I. Military leaders faced what they considered a practical problem. Even if one nation voluntarily abandoned chemical weapons, there was no guarantee that its rivals would do the same. Many generals argued that eliminating their own chemical warfare programs while potential enemies continued research would place their country at a dangerous military disadvantage. The result was a cycle familiar throughout military history: each nation justified maintaining its chemical weapons capability because it feared others would maintain theirs. Publicly, politicians often spoke of preventing another gas war. Privately, military establishments prepared for the possibility that the next major conflict could involve chemical weapons on an even larger scale. The years immediately following World War I therefore became less a period of disarmament than a period of preservation, research, and preparation for what many believed was an inevitable future confrontation. By the mid-1920s, the world found itself in a strange position. The horrors of poison gas were widely recognized, yet the major powers continued investing in the very weapons they publicly condemned. 1925 In the years following World War I, growing public outrage over poison gas created pressure for international action. The memories of gas attacks, blinded soldiers, and men dying from chemical injuries remained fresh across Europe. Political leaders understood that many people viewed chemical warfare as one of the most disturbing aspects of the conflict. In response, representatives from numerous nations gathered in Geneva and negotiated what became known as the Geneva Protocol. Signed in 1925, the agreement prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons in warfare. To many observers, it appeared that the world had finally taken a major step toward preventing another gas war. The treaty was an important milestone, but it was far from a complete ban. The Geneva Protocol prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons on the battlefield, but it did not prohibit nations from researching them. It did not prohibit manufacturing them. It did not prohibit storing them. It did not require existing stockpiles to be destroyed. Nor did it prevent military planners from developing strategies for their future use. As a result, governments were able to publicly condemn chemical warfare while privately maintaining and expanding their chemical warfare programs. Research laboratories remained active. New chemical agents continued to be studied. Military officers continued planning for future conflicts in which chemical weapons might once again play a role. The treaty reflected a contradiction that would shape international policy for decades. Nations agreed that chemical warfare was unacceptable, yet many were unwilling to surrender the military advantages they believed chemical weapons might provide. The result was a world in which chemical warfare was officially rejected but quietly preserved. By the late 1920s, poison gas had not disappeared from military planning. It had simply moved further behind closed doors. 1930s The 1930s demonstrated that international agreements alone would not eliminate chemical warfare. Although the Geneva Protocol had been signed less than a decade earlier, military planners around the world continued to maintain chemical weapons programs, and several nations were willing to use those weapons when they believed military necessity outweighed diplomatic concerns. One of the clearest examples came during Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Despite international agreements and widespread public condemnation of poison gas after World War I, Italian forces used mustard gas against Ethiopian troops and civilians. Aircraft dropped chemical agents over large areas, and contaminated terrain became an additional weapon. The conflict served as a reminder that chemical warfare had not disappeared from modern military thinking. At the same time, Japan was expanding its own chemical weapons capabilities. Japanese military researchers increased production, improved delivery methods, and continued developing chemical warfare doctrine. As Japan's war in China expanded, chemical agents became one of several tools available to military commanders. These developments undermined the belief that the horrors of World War I had permanently discredited poison gas. While political leaders often spoke of international law and disarmament, military establishments continued preparing for conflicts in which chemical weapons might once again be used. By the end of the decade, it had become increasingly clear that chemical warfare had not been eliminated. It had merely survived in the shadows, waiting for the next major conflict to test whether the world's promises would hold. 1937–1945 When war erupted between Japan and China in 1937, the world received further evidence that chemical warfare had not disappeared despite international agreements intended to prevent its use. Throughout the conflict, Japanese forces employed chemical agents against Chinese troops, demonstrating that some governments still viewed chemical weapons as a legitimate military option when pursuing strategic objectives. The war in China became one of the most significant examples of chemical weapon use between World War I and the modern era. Chemical agents were used alongside conventional weapons in an effort to break resistance, clear defensive positions, and gain tactical advantages on the battlefield. The conflict exposed the limitations of international treaties when enforcement mechanisms were weak and major powers were willing to ignore them. At the same time, chemical warfare research continued advancing behind the scenes. Military laboratories in several countries remained active throughout the late 1930s and World War II. Scientists sought compounds that were more effective, more stable, and easier to deliver than the gases used during World War I. Improvements in artillery, aircraft, and munitions technology created new methods for dispersing chemical agents across larger areas and with greater precision. The period also witnessed rapid advances in chemistry itself. Researchers gained a deeper understanding of how toxic substances affected the human body, how environmental conditions influenced their effectiveness, and how protective equipment could be improved. Military planners increasingly viewed chemical warfare not as a relic of World War I, but as a field of science that continued to evolve alongside other military technologies. By the time World War II was underway, chemical warfare had become far more sophisticated than it had been in the trenches of Europe two decades earlier. Although large-scale chemical warfare did not erupt between the major powers in Europe, the scientific foundation for future chemical, biological, and eventually radiological warfare was steadily being built. 1939–1945 As the world moved toward another global war, the major powers entered the conflict with far larger chemical warfare capabilities than they had possessed during World War I. Despite public condemnations of poison gas and the promises embodied in the Geneva Protocol, military planners had spent the previous two decades maintaining stockpiles, conducting research, and preparing for the possibility that chemical weapons would once again be used on the battlefield. During World War II, Britain, Germany, the Soviet Union, Japan, and the United States accumulated enormous quantities of chemical agents. Stockpiles included mustard gas and other battlefield chemicals, while scientists continued searching for more effective compounds. Factories were capable of producing large quantities of chemical munitions, and military forces trained for both offensive and defensive chemical warfare operations. Throughout the war, leaders on all sides feared that a single chemical attack could trigger a chain reaction of retaliation. If one nation released poison gas, its enemies possessed the capability to respond in kind. The result could be a conflict in which chemical warfare spread across multiple fronts, adding a new layer of devastation to an already catastrophic war. Ironically, the very size of these stockpiles may have helped prevent their widespread battlefield use among the major powers. Military commanders understood that their opponents possessed similar capabilities. Any short-term advantage gained through chemical warfare could quickly be matched or exceeded by retaliation. In effect, chemical weapons created a form of mutual deterrence long before the nuclear age introduced the concept on a much larger scale. The war also witnessed important scientific developments. In Germany, researchers discovered a new class of compounds known as nerve agents, including Tabun and later Sarin. These substances were far more toxic than many of the chemical agents used during World War I and represented a significant advance in chemical warfare technology. Although these nerve agents were not widely deployed on the battlefield during the war, their discovery would have a profound influence on military research in the decades that followed. By 1945, the world emerged from the conflict with the largest chemical stockpiles in history, more advanced chemical technologies, and a growing realization that future wars might involve weapons far more dangerous than those seen in the trenches of World War I. At the same time, another revolutionary development was about to transform military thinking even more dramatically: the arrival of the atomic age. 1942–1945 While public attention was focused on the major battles of World War II, a far less visible effort was taking place behind military fences and under strict secrecy. American military leaders knew that if chemical warfare erupted on the battlefield, they needed to understand how chemical agents affected the human body and whether soldiers could be protected from them. To answer those questions, the military launched a series of classified testing programs involving its own personnel. Thousands of American service members participated in experiments involving mustard gas and related chemical agents. Some tests exposed soldiers to small amounts of chemicals while wearing protective equipment. Other experiments placed participants inside gas chambers or controlled environments designed to simulate battlefield conditions. Researchers monitored physical reactions, measured injuries, and evaluated whether gas masks, protective clothing, and decontamination procedures would function during actual combat. The military justified the testing as necessary preparation for a war in which chemical weapons might be used by enemy forces. Germany, Japan, and other nations maintained chemical stockpiles, and American planners feared that chemical attacks could become part of the conflict with little warning. Understanding the effects of exposure was viewed as a matter of military readiness. Many participants, however, were never fully informed about the nature of the experiments or the risks involved. Some soldiers believed they were taking part in routine military testing without understanding exactly what substances they were being exposed to. In many cases, records remained classified, and participants were prohibited from discussing their experiences. Because of the secrecy surrounding the programs, much of the public remained unaware of their existence for decades. As documents were gradually declassified after the war, historians, journalists, and former participants began piecing together a more complete picture of what had occurred. The revelations raised difficult questions about informed consent, military necessity, and the balance between national security and the rights of individual service members. The secret testing programs of World War II would later become an important chapter in a much larger story—one that continued into the Cold War as military researchers explored new chemical agents, new methods of exposure, and increasingly unconventional forms of warfare. 1945 The final months of World War II introduced a weapon unlike anything the world had ever seen. In August 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, bringing the war in the Pacific to a close and ushering humanity into the atomic age. For military planners, the significance of the atomic bomb extended far beyond its immediate destructive power. The bomb demonstrated that enormous amounts of energy could be released from radioactive materials, but it also introduced governments and military researchers to something new: access to significant quantities of radioactive substances and the scientific knowledge required to produce and handle them. Almost immediately, military scientists began asking questions that would have seemed unimaginable only a few years earlier. Was the atomic bomb the only military use for radioactive materials, or were there other possibilities? Could radioactivity itself become a weapon independent of a nuclear explosion? Could radioactive substances be used to contaminate military facilities, transportation networks, ports, industrial centers, or strategic locations? Could they be used in covert operations or sabotage? These questions marked the beginning of a new chapter in military research. During the chemical warfare era, scientists had focused on toxic compounds that injured the body through direct chemical action. The atomic age introduced the possibility of weapons that worked through radiation exposure instead. Unlike poison gas, radioactive materials could be invisible, odorless, and difficult to detect. Exposure might not produce immediate symptoms, making it possible to imagine entirely new forms of warfare and covert operations. The end of World War II therefore did not simply launch the nuclear arms race. It also sparked military interest in radiological warfare—the study of how radioactive materials might be used as weapons outside of a traditional nuclear explosion. Over the next several years, researchers and military planners would explore ideas ranging from battlefield contamination and sabotage to the covert use of radioactive poisons against specific targets. The atomic bomb had changed warfare forever. Yet for some military planners, the most important question was no longer what happened during an explosion, but what could be done with radioactivity itself. 1946–1947 The end of World War II did not end military interest in unconventional weapons. Instead, the atomic age opened entirely new areas of research. Scientists, military planners, and intelligence officials began exploring what became known as radiological warfare—a concept distinct from nuclear warfare even though both involved radioactive materials. Nuclear warfare relied on the immense explosive force produced by an atomic detonation. Radiological warfare focused on something different: the harmful effects of radioactive contamination itself. The question being asked was whether radioactive materials could be used as weapons without the need for a nuclear explosion. Military researchers examined a wide range of possibilities. They considered whether radioactive substances could be dispersed into ports, transportation hubs, military bases, factories, industrial centers, or other strategically important locations. Unlike conventional bombing campaigns, the objective was not necessarily to destroy physical structures. Instead, the goal was to contaminate them. A contaminated harbor might remain operationally useless even if its docks remained standing. A transportation hub might become difficult or dangerous to use. A military installation could be disrupted without being physically destroyed. The effects might be measured not only in physical damage but also in fear, uncertainty, and disruption. Military planners also recognized the psychological impact of radiation. Unlike bullets, artillery shells, or bombs, radioactive contamination could not be seen by the naked eye. People might continue moving through contaminated areas without realizing they had been exposed. The invisible nature of radiation made it uniquely unsettling and created concerns that fear itself could become a weapon. As these studies expanded, some planners explored even more unconventional possibilities. Discussions included sabotage operations involving radioactive substances and methods for introducing contamination into strategic locations without the large-scale destruction associated with conventional military attacks. Most of these ideas remained theoretical and never progressed beyond studies, reports, and planning documents. Nevertheless, they illustrate how dramatically military thinking changed in the years immediately following World War II. The atomic bomb had demonstrated the power of radioactive materials. The next question was whether those same materials could be used in entirely different ways. By the late 1940s, military researchers were no longer focused solely on chemical warfare. They were exploring a broader world of unconventional weapons that included chemical agents, biological agents, radiological contamination, and covert methods of attack. The stage was being set for some of the most unusual military research programs of the early Cold War. Late 1940s The years immediately following World War II marked the beginning of the Cold War, a period in which military planners found themselves confronting a completely new strategic landscape. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged from the war as rival superpowers, while rapid advances in science and technology opened possibilities that earlier generations could scarcely have imagined. Rather than focusing solely on conventional armies, tanks, ships, and aircraft, military researchers began examining a much broader range of unconventional weapons and methods of warfare. Governments funded studies involving chemical agents, biological weapons, radiological contamination, and psychological operations. The goal was to understand how future conflicts might be fought and whether new technologies could provide strategic advantages without requiring traditional battlefield engagements. Chemical warfare programs continued to evolve as scientists searched for compounds that were more effective than those used during World War I. Biological warfare research explored whether disease-producing organisms could be used to disrupt military operations, agriculture, transportation systems, or entire populations. Radiological warfare studies examined how radioactive materials might be used for contamination, sabotage, or covert operations. At the same time, psychological warfare specialists investigated methods for influencing public opinion, weakening morale, spreading confusion, and shaping the behavior of both enemies and civilian populations. Underlying all of these efforts was a growing belief that future wars might not resemble the wars of the past. The devastating experiences of two world wars had demonstrated the enormous costs of conventional conflict. Military planners increasingly wondered whether future victories might be achieved through disruption, contamination, covert action, intelligence operations, or psychological pressure rather than through massive armies fighting across traditional battlefields. The result was a period of extraordinary experimentation. Scientists, military officers, intelligence agencies, and government officials explored ideas ranging from practical weapons systems to concepts that today seem almost unbelievable. Some programs advanced into operational use, others remained theoretical, and many were eventually abandoned. Yet together they reflected a common concern: no one knew what the next major war would look like, and governments were determined not to be caught unprepared. By the close of the 1940s, the world had entered a new era. The age of conventional warfare had not disappeared, but it now existed alongside a growing collection of unconventional strategies that would shape military planning throughout the Cold War. 1948 By 1948, the United States had been living in the atomic age for only three years. World War II had ended, but peace was proving fragile. Relations between the United States and the Soviet Union were deteriorating rapidly, and military planners were beginning to prepare for what would soon become known as the Cold War. The destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had demonstrated the power of nuclear weapons, but military planners were already looking beyond the bomb itself. The question was no longer simply how to build larger atomic weapons. The question was whether radioactive materials could be used in entirely different ways. In May 1948, the Army approved a radiological warfare program designed to explore military applications of radioactive substances. The project was managed by the Army Chemical Corps and supervised by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, the organization responsible for overseeing many aspects of America's early nuclear weapons activities. Military planners viewed radiological warfare as something distinct from nuclear warfare. A nuclear bomb relied on blast, heat, and radiation. Radiological warfare focused on contamination. One proposal envisioned contaminating large areas of land for extended periods. Military documents discussed rendering populated regions, transportation corridors, military facilities, ports, industrial centers, and other strategic locations unusable through radioactive contamination. Residents might be forced to abandon contaminated areas for years or face serious health consequences. A July 1948 Army memorandum described the idea as a "new concept of warfare" whose ultimate consequences could not yet be predicted. As planning continued, Army officials explored additional possibilities. A secret memorandum dated December 16, 1948, outlined a series of priorities for the radiological warfare program. Among the highest priorities were weapons designed to contaminate populated areas and munitions that combined conventional explosives with radioactive materials to create both physical destruction and long-term contamination. Buried deeper within the document was a more unusual proposal. Army planners considered what they called a "subversive weapon for attack of individuals or small groups." Unlike traditional chemical warfare, which targeted armies and battlefields, this concept focused on specific individuals. The memorandum proposed the possibility of using radioactive agents in covert operations against important military or civilian leaders. Rather than attacking troop formations, the objective could be a specific person whose removal might influence political, military, or strategic outcomes. The concept was simple in theory. A target could be exposed to radioactive material without their knowledge. Unlike a bombing attack, there would be no explosion, no visible battlefield, and no immediate indication that an attack had occurred. Symptoms might develop gradually over time and resemble naturally occurring illness, making it difficult to determine whether exposure had been deliberate. According to the Army's own language, the source of the weapon, the fact that an attack had occurred, and even the type of attack should be impossible to determine if possible. The document stated that such a weapon should be inconspicuous, easily transported, and difficult to trace. Planners believed radioactive substances offered unique advantages because they could not be seen, smelled, or tasted. The memorandum suggested that a very small device might be capable of creating an invisible but lethal concentration of radioactive material in an enclosed space, with symptoms appearing only after the attack had already occurred. For military planners and intelligence officials, the concept offered a degree of deniability that conventional weapons could not provide. At the same time, significant practical challenges remained. Researchers needed to understand how radioactive substances behaved, how exposure occurred, what quantities might be effective, and how such operations could be conducted without exposing those carrying them out. The project remained highly classified. Unlike the atomic bomb, which became one of the most publicized military developments in history, research into radioactive poisons took place largely out of public view. Large portions of later progress reports remain heavily censored, leaving historians with an incomplete picture of how far the research advanced or whether any practical weapon was ever developed. What is clear is that the project reflected a dramatic shift in military thinking during the early Cold War. Only three years after the first atomic bombs were used in war, military planners were already exploring contamination weapons, radiological sabotage, covert radioactive poisoning, and other unconventional forms of warfare. The atomic age had begun with the most destructive weapon ever created. Yet almost immediately, military planners were asking whether radioactive materials could also be used in the opposite way—not to destroy a city, but to quietly target a single individual. It was one of the earliest examples of Cold War strategy blending science, secrecy, intelligence operations, and unconventional warfare into a single military program. 1950s As the Cold War intensified, military interest in radiological warfare did not disappear. Researchers continued studying how radioactive materials might be used outside of a nuclear explosion. Military reports examined radioactive contamination, sabotage operations, radiological dispersal devices—what would later become known as "dirty bombs"—and various forms of covert exposure. The central idea remained the same: if radioactive materials could contaminate an area, disrupt operations, or incapacitate a target without requiring an atomic detonation, they might offer strategic advantages under certain circumstances. At the same time, however, military technology was advancing at an extraordinary pace. The United States and the Soviet Union entered a rapidly escalating nuclear arms race. The atomic bombs used against Japan were soon overshadowed by the development of hydrogen bombs, weapons vastly more powerful than those used in 1945. Long-range bombers were followed by ballistic missiles capable of delivering nuclear warheads across continents in a matter of minutes. As these developments unfolded, strategic nuclear warfare increasingly dominated military planning. Government resources, scientific talent, and defense budgets flowed toward the construction of nuclear arsenals capable of deterring or defeating rival superpowers. Compared with the destructive power of thermonuclear weapons, many radiological warfare concepts appeared limited in their military impact. While contamination, sabotage, and covert exposure remained subjects of study, they no longer occupied the same level of strategic importance. By the end of the decade, the center of military attention had shifted decisively toward nuclear deterrence. Yet the radiological studies of the late 1940s and early 1950s remain historically significant because they reveal how broadly military planners were willing to think during the early Cold War. Researchers were not simply developing bigger bombs; they were exploring every conceivable way that science and technology might be transformed into instruments of warfare. Looking Back The history of chemical and radiological warfare is, in many ways, the history of expanding military imagination. Ancient armies poisoned wells and contaminated water supplies. Industrial societies transformed chemistry into a battlefield weapon. World War I introduced poison gas on a massive scale and demonstrated how modern science could change the nature of warfare. In the decades that followed, governments continued refining chemical agents while exploring new forms of military research, including secret testing programs and increasingly sophisticated delivery systems. The atomic age introduced an entirely new possibility. For the first time, military planners had access to radioactive materials and began asking whether radioactivity itself could become a weapon. Some envisioned contaminated ports, military bases, and transportation networks. Others considered sabotage operations and covert exposure programs. The 1948 Army project examining radioactive poisons occupies a unique place in this story because it bridged the gap between traditional chemical warfare and the emerging world of Cold War covert operations. Rather than focusing on armies or battlefields, the project explored whether invisible radioactive substances could be used against specific individuals. It reflected a broader shift in military thinking—one in which scientific research, intelligence activities, secrecy, and unconventional warfare increasingly overlapped. The story does not end there. The Cold War would continue to generate new forms of chemical, biological, radiological, and psychological warfare research. Yet the late 1940s and early 1950s remain a pivotal turning point, marking the moment when military planners began moving beyond the battlefield and exploring entirely new ways to wage war in the atomic age. Countries that became nuclear weapon states: United States (1945) Soviet Union (1949) United Kingdom (1952) France (1960) China (1964) Iran, Nuclear Power, and the Question Nobody Asks 1945 The United States drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The world enters the nuclear age. At this point there is only one nuclear power on Earth: The United States.  one nuclear-armed power: the United States. The lesson many nations take away is simple: The most powerful country in the world has nuclear weapons. 1949 The Soviet Union detonates its first atomic bomb. Now there are two nuclear superpowers. The Cold War begins to revolve around nuclear weapons. Both sides rapidly expand their arsenals. 1952 The United Kingdom detonates its first atomic bomb. Britain becomes the third nuclear weapons power. 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower launches Atoms for Peace. The public goal: Spread peaceful nuclear technology. The strategic goal: Keep friendly nations tied to the Western alliance. The same year, Iran becomes even more important to American strategy after the Mosaddegh crisis. The Shah is viewed as pro-Western and anti-Soviet. Iran sits on massive oil reserves and occupies a strategic location between the Soviet Union, the Persian Gulf, Central Asia, and South Asia. 1954 The Soviet Union opens Obninsk, the world's first grid-connected nuclear power plant. For the first time, nuclear technology is producing electricity for civilian use. The nuclear age is no longer just about bombs. 1956 Britain opens Calder Hall, the world's first commercial nuclear power station supplying electricity to a public grid. Nuclear energy is presented as the future. Around the world, governments begin discussing reactors, research programs, and civilian nuclear development. 1957 The United States opens Shippingport Atomic Power Station, America's first commercial nuclear power plant. The same year, the United States signs a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement with Iran. Today many people think the Iranian nuclear story starts with Ayatollahs and centrifuges. It doesn't. It starts with Washington. 1960 France detonates its first atomic bomb. 1964 China detonates its first atomic bomb. The future five permanent members of the U.N. Security Council are now all nuclear powers. 1967 America provides Iran with the Tehran Research Reactor. American universities train Iranian scientists. Highly enriched uranium fuel is supplied. Nobody in Washington is warning about an Iranian bomb. The Shah is considered one of America's closest allies. Late 1960s–1970s A strange contradiction appears. The United States is building thousands of nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union is building thousands of nuclear weapons. Britain possesses nuclear weapons. France possesses nuclear weapons. China possesses nuclear weapons. Yet those same countries are creating rules designed to stop additional countries from joining the club. This becomes the foundation of the modern nuclear order. 1970 Iran signs the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The deal is essentially: Existing nuclear powers keep their weapons. Everyone else agrees not to build them. Supporters argue this prevents global nuclear chaos. Critics immediately note the contradiction. 1970s The Shah wants a huge nuclear program. Plans are discussed for numerous reactors. Western governments support the effort. German firms begin work at Bushehr. French companies are involved. American companies want contracts. At this stage nobody is saying: Iran shouldn't have nuclear technology. The argument doesn't exist yet. 1974 India conducts its first nuclear test. The test shocks much of the world and increases concerns about proliferation. THE TURNING POINT 1979 The Iranian Revolution changes everything. The Shah is overthrown. Ayatollah Khomeini comes to power. The American embassy hostage crisis follows. Iran goes from ally to adversary almost overnight. Nothing about the reactor changes. Nothing about uranium changes. What changes is: Who controls it. THE QUESTION CHANGES Before 1979: How can we help Iran build nuclear capability? After 1979: How can we stop Iran from building nuclear capability? This is one of the most fascinating shifts in the entire story. 1980–1988 Iran fights Iraq. The war kills hundreds of thousands. Iran sees chemical weapons used against its soldiers. Many Iranian leaders later point to this experience and conclude: The world will not protect us. This becomes part of Iran's security thinking. 1990s Iran quietly rebuilds parts of its nuclear infrastructure. Sanctions increase. Suspicion increases. The nuclear issue becomes central to relations with the West. 1991 The Gulf War demonstrates overwhelming American military power after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Many governments observe that countries without strong deterrents are vulnerable. The nuclear debate increasingly becomes tied to regime survival. 1998 India and Pakistan openly test nuclear weapons. The nuclear club grows despite decades of non-proliferation efforts. MODERN CRISIS BEGINS 2002 Previously undisclosed facilities at Natanz and Arak become public. The world suddenly realizes: Iran's nuclear program is far more advanced than many believed. From this point forward the story becomes almost entirely about enrichment. 2003–2015 Years of negotiations, inspections, sanctions, and diplomatic pressure follow. The world attempts to determine whether Iran's program is solely civilian or whether it could eventually support nuclear weapons production. THE MISSING QUESTION Most headlines ask: Why does Iran want nuclear capability? Very few ask: Why did every existing nuclear power decide it needed nuclear capability? That question makes people uncomfortable. Because the answer is usually: Security. Iran gives exactly the same answer. Russia gives it. America gives it. China gives it. Pakistan gives it. India gives it. Britain gives it. France gives it. Everyone says: We need them because the world is dangerous. 2015 The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) is signed. Supporters believe: Iran will retain scientific knowledge regardless. The best option is strict inspections and limitations. Critics believe: Iran is preserving its infrastructure while waiting for restrictions to expire. The disagreement is not really about centrifuges. It is about trust. Can a hostile government be trusted to remain within agreed limits? 2018 President Donald Trump withdraws from the JCPOA. His position is simple: The deal delayed the problem but did not solve it. Supporters of the agreement argue: Leaving removes restrictions and transparency. Critics argue: Remaining in the agreement eventually legitimizes expansion. 2020s Iran expands enrichment beyond JCPOA limits. The debate intensifies. The world increasingly focuses on breakout capability, enrichment levels, inspections, and regional security. 2026 The public discussion often begins here: Iran has enriched uranium. Iran may be approaching nuclear weapons capability. Yet the longer timeline reveals a more complicated story. 1945: America creates the nuclear age. 1949–1964: The major powers join the nuclear club. 1953–1970s: The West encourages civilian nuclear development around the world, including in Iran. 1979: Iran's government changes. 2002: The modern crisis emerges. 2015: The JCPOA attempts to manage the problem. 2018: The United States withdraws. 2026: The world debates how to control, limit, negotiate with, or stop a nuclear program whose roots stretch back to the Cold War. The question beneath the entire debate remains the same: Is the problem the technology? Or is the problem who controls the technology? This is one reason the debate can be confusing.  People often hear: // "Iran's nuclear program"  and picture a giant nuclear power network.  In reality, there are several different things that get lumped together under the phrase "nuclear program":  Nuclear power plants that generate electricity.   Research reactors.   Uranium mining.   Uranium enrichment facilities.   Fuel fabrication.   Potential weapons-related activities.   Missile programs.   Those are related, but they're not the same thing.  For example, the current negotiations focus heavily on uranium enrichment, not on the fact that Iran has a single operating power reactor. The concern from the U.S., Israel, and others is that enriched uranium can potentially be used for either civilian fuel or, at much higher enrichment levels, weapons material.   Historically, that's another interesting twist in the story. Under the Shah, the vision was not one reactor. Iran planned a much larger civilian nuclear sector, with many reactors and major power generation goals. The 1979 revolution, war with Iraq, sanctions, political isolation, and decades of disputes prevented most of those plans from being realized. Your uploaded document describes those original ambitions in some detail.   So if someone hears only today's headlines, they might imagine Iran as a major nuclear-power nation. In terms of electricity generation, it really isn't. In terms of enrichment technology and nuclear fuel-cycle capabilities, however, it has developed capabilities that have become the center of the international dispute.   That's another example of why looking at the root of a story can be useful: "nuclear program" can mean very different things depending on which part of the program people are talking about.  Back in the 1950s when nuclear proliferation was seen as more of a goal rather than a problem, the United States helped Iran create its nuclear program through the United States Atoms for Peace Program. President Eisenhower intended for this program to help developing countries use nuclear power for energy and other peaceful purposes. The program also helped the United States secure allies during the Cold War.  Following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, the relationship between Iran and the United States changed dramatically. After President Carter allowed the Shah, the ousted-Iranian leader, to receive medical treatment in the United States, a 15-month Iranian hostage crisis ensued. Even though Iran no longer received help with its nuclear program from the United States, nuclear development continued. Given the lack of open communication between Iran and much of the western world, some aspects of the Iranian nuclear program's origins and capabilities remain a mystery to this day.  In 2015, China, France, Germany, Russia, the U.K., and the United States, also known as the P5+1, signed the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) or the Iran deal, signifying the first tangible effort of the United States and the other signatories to limit Iran's nuclear development. Today, the JCPOA seems to have a bleak future, as President Trump decided in May of 2018 to pull the United States out of the agreement. While the debate about the JCPOA's merits rages on, the future of Iran's nuclear capabilities remains uncertain.  Pre-Revolution Nuclear History  During the Shah's rule, through the United States Atoms for Peace Program, Iran received the United States' help with nuclear technology, nuclear fuel, training, equipment laboratories, and power plants, all to be used for the generation of electricity and research. In 1967, Iran received its first 5 MW (megawatts) research reactor, known as the Tehran Research Reactor (TRR), powered by highly-enriched uranium (HEU). The reactor can produce up to 600 grams of plutonium a year and became the starting point for future multibillion-dollar contracts with other nations, including France, Germany, Namibia, and South Africa.  Kraftwerk, a German company, helped to complete one of the most significant projects for the country's nuclear program. Built on the coast of the Persian Gulf, the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant was meant to hold two nuclear reactors; Kraftwerk nearly finished one reactor when the Iranian Revolution broke out.  In addition to receiving international help, the Shah insured home-grown nuclear development. In 1974, he established the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI), charging it with a task of constructing 20 nuclear power reactors, a uranium enrichment facility, a reprocessing plant for spent fuel, and producing 23,000 MWe of nuclear power by the end of the 20th century. The Shah intended for the nuclear power to replace oil and gas, which could then all be exported and sold. For context, Iran produced 4,183,930 barrels or 175,725,060 gallons of oil in 1971, nearly 10% of the world's total oil production.  During this time of nuclear advancement, Iran followed international nuclear standards that were in existence at the time. In February of 1979, with the Shah and his family already in exile, the Iranian Parliament ratified the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), agreeing to its goals to prevent proliferation of nuclear weapons, promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and eventually total disarmament.  Post-Revolution Nuclear History  The Iranian Revolution, which set up the new Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979, not only echoed in an era of dramatic change for the country but also its nuclear program. Leading up to and during the Revolution, many of the foreign and Iranian nuclear workers fled the country. The new leader, Ayatollah Khomeini, viewed the nuclear program as "un-Islamic" until 1984.  Due to the newly hostile American-Iranian relationship, Iran no longer received help from the United States and its allies, as the United States put pressure on countries that attempted to get involved in Iran's nuclear program. Eventually, Iran made deals with Pakistan and China, but the United States blocked parts of the Chinese agreement that would have given Iran additional reactors. The United States successfully blocked many other Iranian nuclear contracts, forcing Iran to seek help from nations and actors Americans could not control.  Beginning in 1987, Iran received nuclear plans and imports, such as centrifuges, from unknown foreign entities. Many suspect that these originated from Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan's underground nuclear network, who is believed to have helped Pakistan, Libya, Iran, and North Korea advance their nuclear programs.  The countries involved in Khan's network, in turn, helped one another with the nuclear technologies that Khan could not assist them with. Beginning in 1992, Iran entered into deals with North Korea, mainly involving missiles. North Korea provided Iran with missiles in exchange for more money for its missile program. Due to the antagonistic relationship that much of the western world has with these two nations, details of their exchanges are largely unknown.   Nuclear Weapons?  Many aspects of the Iranian nuclear weapons program and exchanges with undisclosed countries remain a mystery, but some facets have been revealed over time.  It is now known that Iran established its nuclear weapons program, known as Project Amad, in the late 1990s/early 2000s. The project entailed the acquisition and production of weapons-grade nuclear material, testing of nuclear weapon components, and planning for the construction of a unique nuclear weapon. The project appears to have ended suddenly in 2003. In 2011, the IAEA released a document containing all the information known about Project Amad at that time and explained that it remained unclear whether any remnants of the project, particularly those related to a nuclear explosive device, remained.  In April 2018, Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu, announced that Israeli spies raided a nuclear information warehouse in Iran. According to the Prime Minister's statement, the spies found documents that confirmed the existence of Project Amad, as was speculated by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and much of the Western World, despite Iran's insistence that its nuclear program had always been peaceful.  The spies in the Israeli raid collected documents from 15 years ago, so their information only provided historical context for the extent of the project, rather than revealing the current status of the nuclear weapons program. According to Israel's findings, Iran had made plans to build five nuclear weapons and to test them at different sites, suggesting that Iran was closer to a nuclear weapons program than previously thought. However, the problem with all this newly disclosed information is that it cannot be easily verified. Israel and Iran have had their own complicated history, and Israel used its findings to try and convince nations to back out of the JCPOA.     A Trail of Broken Agreements  Broken agreements and failed negotiations were all too common before the JCPOA. In 2003, Iran welcomed the IAEA through the signing of the Additional Protocol, which granted the IAEA information and access to Iran's nuclear program facilities. This protocol also allowed the IAEA to use the most advanced technology to inspect all nuclear sites in Iran. Three years later, Iran backed out of this deal, following the IAEA's discovery of undisclosed parts of the nuclear program, leading to American sanctions.  Right after its departure from the Additional Protocol in 2006, Iran announced the construction of new nuclear facilities expected to hold 2,784 centrifuges to enrich uranium. Four years later, Iran announced it could produce highly enriched uranium (HEU - uranium enriched to over 20%, or uranium containing at least 20% of Uranium 235), the minimum agreed enrichment necessary for the construction of nuclear weapons. Uranium only needs to be enriched to about 3 to 5% to be used for generating electricity in nuclear power plants, which qualifies as peaceful nuclear use. Right up to this point, Iran depended on other countries to obtain HEU.  Iran's announcement regarding uranium enrichment sparked concern in the international community, leading to additional sanctions imposed on the country, and secret actions to halt Iran's nuclear development. In July of 2010, a worm attacked 15 nuclear facilities in Iran, causing centrifuges to break. While it is clear that a cyber attack caused this worm, the actor behind the attack remains unknown.     Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)  Despite the cyber attack and the sanctions, Iran's nuclear program continued to advance. Although Iran and other nations initiated some talks to slow Iran's nuclear development, none resulted in formal agreements. It was not until June 14th, 2013, when Hassan Rouhani was elected President, that negotiations with Iran took a more promising turn. In one of his first speeches as President, Rouhani expressed his desire to negotiate with the P5+1 about the development of the nuclear program in Iran.  Negotiations came into full fruition on July 14th, 2015, with the signing of the JCPOA. The purpose of this agreement is to slow Iran's progress towards the construction of a nuclear weapon by reducing or halting altogether certain uranium enrichment activities. The JCPOA limits Iran's centrifuge construction, heavy water-related activities, and weapons-grade plutonium and uranium production possession.    While Iran has violated the maximum amount of heavy water, used as a moderator in nuclear reactors, it has followed the specified procedure for removing the excess from the country. Iran has also managed to stay at or below any other levels for other provisions in the JCPOA measured by the IAEA. Despite Iran's seeming compliance, the deal remains in peril as the United States and Iran's relationship grows increasingly hostile.  The main issue countries have with the agreement is that it does not cover the testing of missiles. Iran continues to test missiles, aggravating not only the United States but also the United Nations and other nations involved in the JCPOA. Since a missile is half of what is needed to have a nuclear weapon capable of threatening another country, this suggests that Iran may be using its nuclear program for non-peaceful purposes.  Others have issues with the sunset clauses in the JCPOA. Traditionally, agreements have these clauses which set up a date after which the terms of the deal conclude. In the case of the JCPOA, there are multiple sunset clauses pertaining to different parts of Iran's nuclear program, such as uranium enrichment, the construction of centrifuges, and limitations on heavy water. In particular, most have a problem with the sunset clause pertaining to Iran's uranium enrichment. According to David Phillips, Director of the Peace-building and Rights Institute for the Study of Human Rights at Columbia University, "The JCPOA was flawed from the outset because of the sunset clause. Iran is allowed to restart its enrichment of uranium after 15 years. That is much too short a period."  Despite the issues with the agreement, many still take the position that since the JCPOA was already negotiated and decided upon, countries should follow the agreed terms to maintain accountability. Philips explained, "Once you negotiate a deal that is endorsed by the Security Council, you have to live with it. You can't unilaterally walk away." While many will continue to disagree about how to handle diplomacy with Iran, an Iranian nuclear program shrouded in mystery does not appear to be a promising path forward.    Source:  From "Atoms for Peace" to "JCPOA": History of Iranian Nuclear Development. | K=1 Project Did you know the US and Israel helped create Iran's nuclear project? What's 3,000 people killed in Iran, 2,020 killed in Lebanon, 23 in Israel, and more than a dozen in Gulf states after the US launched its war against Iran? "A little Middle East work" that's going "very well," US President Donald Trump said at the White House last week during a state dinner for King Charles. Trump's 'little work', which involved significant casualties in the region without a clearly defined objective at the outset, was later framed as serving the purpose of ensuring that "Americans and their children would not be threatened by a nuclear-armed Iran." "We have militarily defeated that particular opponent, and we're never going to let that opponent ever – Charles agrees with me even more than I do – we're never going to let that opponent have a nuclear weapon." Will Charles help Donald make sure there's nothing – and no one – to allow Iran to work on its nuclear project? It seems like the US will try to level Iran to the ground anyway. According to The Atlantic, the Trump administration began considering strikes aimed not simply at Iran's military capacity, but at the faction inside the regime that Washington believed was preventing a deal. Trump even reposted a video by Washington Post columnist Marc Thiessen calling for an air campaign along those lines. According to Axios, the military prepared options for a "short and powerful" wave of strikes, which General Dan Caine, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, briefed the president on. The timing is politically delicate. Trump has a state visit to China scheduled for mid-May, a trip that has already been postponed once. If strikes are ordered, they could come before the trip, allowing the president to travel after demonstrating strength. Or they could come immediately afterward, once the diplomatic optics are out of the way. While Trump supplied the performance, Secretary of State Marco Rubio supplied the doctrine. When Trump spoke of military victory, royal agreement, and Iran never being allowed to possess a nuclear weapon, Rubio framed the same position as strategic necessity: Iran's government cannot be trusted, its future intentions are already known, and any deal that fails to address the nuclear question is unacceptable. US President Donald Trump speaks to reporters as he and Secretary of State Marco Rubio (L) depart the White House on their way to Florida on March 20, 2026 in Washington, DC © Getty Images / Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images The nuclear question, he said, is "the reason why we're in this in the first place." He insisted that if Iran's "radical clerical regime" remained in power, it would eventually decide to pursue a nuclear weapon. Therefore, in his view, the issue has to be confronted immediately. But there is something deeply ironic in this entire spectacle. Listening to Trump and Rubio, one might think Iran's nuclear program appeared out of nowhere – a dark project born entirely from anti-Western ideology and clerical ambition. This is far from the case. Iran's nuclear program did not begin with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. It did not begin with the Islamic Republic. It did not begin as an anti-American project. It began under the Shah, when Iran was a close US ally. And it began with direct American assistance. When Iran's nuclear dream was a Western project The origins of Iran's nuclear program were actually a pro-Western modernization project of the Shah's era, and it was the Western countries that acted as the architects in the early stages, Nikolay Sukhov, a leading researcher at the Primakov Institute of World Economy and International Relations and professor at the HSE University in Moscow, told RT. The Atoms for Peace program, launched by the Eisenhower administration, was designed to export nuclear technology to US allies for peaceful purposes: Research, energy, and medicine, Sukhov said. Under the Shah, Iran was one of Washington's priority partners. Practical implementation began in the late 1950s, when Iran and the US signed an agreement on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Under the agreement, Washington committed to supplying Tehran with nuclear installations and equipment, and to helping train Iranian specialists. Later, in 1967, the US delivered Iran's first research reactor. Iranian nuclear experts were trained not only in the US, but also in Britain, Belgium, West Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and France. Specialists from Israel, West Germany, France, and the US agreed to work on the project and started laying the foundation for a reactor at Bushehr in southern Iran and a research reactor in Isfahan. Iran signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and ratified it in 1970, formally confirming the peaceful status of its nuclear program. At the time, few in the West described Iran's nuclear program as a nightmare, and very few warned that the world was about to be held hostage by Tehran's atomic ambitions. The reason was simple: Iran was ruled by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah, a close American ally and a central pillar of US strategy in the Middle East. The Shah's nuclear ambitions, however, weren't limited to a peaceful project. The whole thing was part of a much larger project, the 'White Revolution' launched in 1963 – a sweeping modernization program that he called the "revolution of the Shah and the people." Over the next decade and a half, Iran was transformed at extraordinary speed. A country that had recently been largely agrarian began building steel plants, machine-building factories, petrochemical complexes, automobile and tractor plants, gas and aluminum industries, and even the foundations of national shipbuilding and aircraft production. "The shah placed his bet on large-scale nuclear energy as a pillar of industrialization and as a way to reduce dependence on oil. Paradoxically, that was precisely the logic: Nuclear power would free up more oil for export," Sukhov said. Israeli advisers, who Mohammad Reza Pahlavi reportedly listened to carefully, were among those who convinced him that a country with such vast oil wealth deserved its own nuclear power plants. This is an important detail, because today Israel presents Iran's nuclear infrastructure as an intolerable threat by definition. But in the Shah's Iran, Israeli involvement in strategic and technological modernization was not unusual. Iran and Israel maintained close security, intelligence, and technical ties. The same Iran that is now described as a permanent danger was then part of a regional order that Washington and its allies wanted to strengthen. Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in Tehran, Iran, October 4th 1960. © Getty Images / Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images Israel's role went back even earlier, to May 1958, when David Ben-Gurion received two Iranian nuclear scientists in his office. According to his notebooks, the visitors said they had come to establish ties with the Israeli scientific world and told him respectfully: "We have heard that in everything concerning science, you are at the level of the Americans." The Shah's vision was simple and grandiose: To move Iran "from the Middle Ages into the nuclear age." The nuclear project, in his mind, would place Iran in the top ranks of Middle Eastern countries. He said Iran would have nuclear weapons "without a doubt and sooner than one would think," a statement he later disavowed. Though the Western countries didn't see Iran as anything but a partner, Washington did have concerns. Declassified documents from the Ford and Carter years show that US officials worried about the Shah's interest in plutonium reprocessing, a technology that could provide a faster route to a bomb than enriched uranium. And yet no one seemed concerned enough to stop the process – or perceptive enough to notice another one unfolding in parallel: The slow build-up of a revolution that, within just a few years, would erupt. "Western specialists in the 1960s and 1970s were not helping Iran build a military program. They were building a classic civilian nuclear system for an allied state, one that still depended heavily on Western technology and expertise," Sukhov said. "Yet that same system, through its personnel, infrastructure, and institutions, eventually gave Iran the tools to pursue technological sovereignty in the nuclear field later." The Revolution that inherited the atom By the time the Shah fell in 1979, the construction of Iran's first two nuclear reactors, with German participation, had already entered the final stage. The monarchy was gone but the infrastructure remained. So did the idea that nuclear technology was not simply about electricity, but also about development, prestige, and national independence. "The turning point came after the Islamic Revolution. Most Western specialists left the country, projects were frozen, and cooperation with the United States and Europe came to an end. But the infrastructure already built – along with the experts Iran had trained – became the foundation for a later program that was more autonomous, more closed, and much harder for the West to control," Sukhov said. Then came the Iran-Iraq War. From 1980 to 1988, the Bushehr area was a repeated target of Iraqi air attacks. The unfinished nuclear plant, visible from a distance, was an obvious and symbolic target. According to Iranian media cited in the source material, American assistance allegedly helped guide Saddam Hussein's pilots toward the facility several times. The attacks killed workers, damaged parts of the plant, and turned what had once been a prestige project of the Shah into a battlefield ruin. Iranian president Abulhassan Banisadr during a visit to the frontlines © Wikipedia For Iran, watching the region around it militarize, strike first, and treat nuclear capability as a question of survival were lessons that were hard to miss. It was in the years of the Iran-Iraq War that the idea of an 'Islamic atomic bomb' likely began to take shape in the minds of some Iranian leaders. Publicly, the revival of the Shah's nuclear program was presented as a matter of energy diversification. Iran had oil and gas, but it also had ambitions to become technologically self-sufficient. Nuclear technology was framed as a symbol of development and as a necessary attribute of any state that considered itself serious and sovereign. The possible military dimension was only one part of a broader Iranian drive for self-reliance in arms, technology, and industry. After Ayatollah Khomeini's death in 1989, Iran's approach to nuclear energy changed again. Under the new supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, the country resumed its nuclear ambitions and continued seeking technologies connected to nuclear capability. By the early 1990s, the country was recovering from the devastating war with Iraq and trying to rebuild a program that was disrupted by revolution, bombardment, sanctions, and the withdrawal of foreign specialists who helped build it in the first place. Under US pressure, Germany, India, and Argentina declined to support Iran's nuclear program. Iran turned to other partners, including China, Russia, and Pakistan. China signed nuclear cooperation protocols with Iran in 1985 and 1990, providing small research reactors, equipment related to uranium enrichment and fuel production, and more than a ton of natural uranium. Russia showed willingness to work on Iran's civilian nuclear development, and in 1992, Moscow and Tehran signed a nuclear cooperation agreement. In 1995, Iran finalized a cooperation protocol with Russia to complete the Bushehr reactor, the very project that had begun under the Shah with German involvement and which was battered during the Iran-Iraq War. This cooperation was controversial, especially in Washington. Then-President Bill Clinton pressed then-Russian President Boris Yeltsin to halt nuclear assistance to Iran, reflecting American concerns that civilian nuclear cooperation could strengthen Iran's broader technical base. In Russia, however, the argument was more complex. Some analysts believed that cooperation with Iran in nuclear energy could actually create channels of control and transparency: If Russia was involved, it would have contacts, oversight, and leverage that might help keep the project within civilian limits. The International Atomic Energy Agency did not at this stage report clear signs of a military component in Iran's nuclear program. There was also a practical economic factor. In the difficult post-Soviet years, Russia needed major industrial contracts, and the Bushehr project promised significant revenue for Russian companies and the state. For Moscow, the project was not necessarily understood as a dramatic geopolitical gamble. It was a civilian energy contract, a continuation of a half-built plant, and a way to preserve Russia's role in the global nuclear industry. There were, however, concerns. Some reports suggested that Russian contractors continued providing assistance beyond what Washington considered acceptable, including help involving heavy-water infrastructure and uranium mining. US and Israeli officials increasingly worried that Iran was acquiring not only nuclear power capability, but a wider industrial base that could shorten the distance to military applications if Tehran ever made the decision. View of the reactor building at the Russian-built Bushehr nuclear power plant as the first fuel is loaded, on August 21, 2010 in Bushehr, southern Iran. © Getty Images / IIPA via Getty Images By 1999, reports indicated that Iranian specialists had begun testing enrichment equipment that would eventually be connected to the facility at Natanz. Then, in 2002, the crisis entered a new stage. The Iranian opposition group Mujahedin-e Khalq revealed the existence of two previously undeclared nuclear sites: Natanz and Arak. This disclosure came at a moment when the US was already focused intensely on weapons of mass destruction, 'rogue states', and non-state extremist actors. By early 2003, the scale of Iran's progress had become clearer. Iran had advanced further than US intelligence had expected. It had completed a cascade of 164 centrifuges and was building many more. Natanz was designed to house tens of thousands of centrifuges. At Arak, inspectors found construction related to heavy-water production and a reactor that could produce plutonium. For the first time, Iran's nuclear program became not just a source of suspicion, but the center of an international crisis. The program becomes the crisis The snowball effect of mistrust of the same countries that helped Iran build its nuclear program is well known. Even though Iran implemented the Additional Protocol to the NPT in 2003, strengthening the IAEA's ability to inspect and verify the program, and another agreement extending the temporary suspension of Iran's nuclear activities in 2004, the mistrust of the Western countries did not disappear. In 2005, the US again accused Iran of violating its commitments and developing a nuclear program, citing intelligence literally found on a stolen Iranian laptop. Though experts questioned the reliability of this material, suggesting that Iranian opposition factions or a hostile state could have fabricated evidence, Washington successfully pushed for an IAEA resolution condemning Iran for a long history of concealment and failures to meet its obligations under the NPT. Iran's foreign minister, Manouchehr Mottaki, rejected the resolution as "illegal and illogical" and described it as the result of a scenario designed by the US. From that point on, the pattern hardened. Publicly, Washington and its partners spoke of diplomacy, inspections, safeguards, and nonproliferation. Privately, the US and Israel expanded intelligence cooperation and pursued covert means to slow Iran's progress. The CIA, wishful thinking, and imperial blindness: How the US engineered its own failure in Cuba What had begun under the Shah as a Western-supported modernization project had become, under the Islamic Republic, a permanent international crisis. The larger irony remained intact. Iran's nuclear program began with American approval, European contracts, Israeli contacts, and international legitimacy. After 1979, the same infrastructure became radioactive in the political sense. It was no longer the nuclear dream of a friendly monarch. It was the nuclear ambition of a state that had broken with Washington. Today's American outrage has a strange historical aftertaste. Trump wants to erase what earlier American policy helped create, and Israel wants to destroy a nuclear capacity that Israeli experts once helped nurture. The point is not that Iran's nuclear program was 'good' when the West helped build it and 'bad' once the Islamic Republic inherited it. The point is that it became unacceptable when it was no longer in the hands of a US-aligned client state. After 1979, the same infrastructure, institutions, and expertise ended up under a government Washington could not control. And despite losing Western support, Iran managed to keep the program alive through procurement, covert development, and partial localization. Over time, this produced a more autonomous nuclear cycle. It also gave Iran the ability to move close to weapons-grade capability without formally leaving the NPT. This is what made the program so difficult for Washington to contain – not simply that Iran had nuclear technology, but that it had learned how to sustain and advance it without being a client of the West. Source:  Did you know the US and Israel helped create Iran's nuclear project? Here's the story — RT World News By Elizaveta Naumova, a Russian political journalist and expert at the Higher School of Economics References: Sources for this episode include declassified military documents, United Nations treaties, congressional investigations, government reports, historical archives, and the published work of researchers including Robert O. Becker and Samuel Milham. As always, listeners are encouraged to review the original documents and draw their own conclusions. Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments. Final Report of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995. Becker, Robert O., and Gary Selden. The Body Electric: Electromagnetism and the Foundation of Life. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1985. Burns, Robert. "U.S. Army Explored Using Radioactive Poisons to Assassinate 'Important Individuals.'" Associated Press, October 9, 2007. Eisenhower, Dwight D. "Atoms for Peace." Address before the United Nations General Assembly, New York, December 8, 1953. International Atomic Energy Agency. Atoms for Peace and the Origins of International Nuclear Cooperation. Vienna: IAEA. Milham, Samuel. Dirty Electricity: Electrification and the Diseases of Civilization. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, 2010. Milham, Samuel, and Lloyd Morgan. "A New Electromagnetic Exposure Metric: High Frequency Voltage Transients Associated with Increased Cancer Incidence in Teachers in a California School." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 51, no. 8 (2008): 579–586. National Security Archive. The Moscow Signals Declassified: Microwave Mysteries, Projects Pandora and Bizarre. Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (Geneva Protocol). Geneva, June 17, 1925. United Nations. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. New York, July 1, 1968. United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Mustard Gas and Lewisite Exposure. United States Senate Committee on Veterans' Affairs. Human Experimentation and Research Programs: Mustard Gas Testing During World War II. Washington, DC, 1993. Primary Historical Sources Eisenhower, Dwight D. "Atoms for Peace." United Nations General Assembly, December 8, 1953. Geneva Protocol. Geneva, Switzerland, June 17, 1925. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). July 1, 1968. Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments. Final Report. 1995. The USA  "Americans believe that the United States of America became a separate country following its War of Independence against the British in 1783.However, what happened was the setting up of the USA as a corporation subject to British maritime law. If you don't believe me then when you watch Obama speaking what do you think the gold border around your flag signifies?So, if the US is just a corporation, not a country where's the evidence? we look for the Queen signing off acts of Parliament which automatically apply to the USA -legislation.gov.uk/uksi… - it isn't the only one.The one above was the Queen dictating social security legislation to the IRS. Still think you're independent. "IRS Forces U.S. Citizens To Pay A Percentage Of Their Taxes To The Queen Of The UK Deep State – Political Vel Craft References USA History  UNITED STATES is a Corporation - There are Two Constitutions - SovereigntyFederal Reserve - The Enemy of AmericaA history lesson for Americans. You're still British. – Patriots for Truthbankruptcyofus.pdfWar and Emergency PowersMedia Release: The People Are the Enemy"Since March 9, 1933, the United States has been in a state of declared national emergency Powers listed:   Seize property    Organize and control production    Seize commodities    Assign military forces abroad    Institute martial law    Seize transportation    Seize communications    Regulate private enterprise    Restrict travel    Control lives of citizens    (Source attributed in text: Senate Report 93-549)    14th Amendment | AntiCorruption Society The IRS is not a US government agency.  It is an agency of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Diversified Metal Products v I.R.S et al.  CV-93-405E-EJE U.S.D.C.D.I., Public Law 94-564, Senate report 94-1148 pg. 5967, Reorganization Plan No. 26, Public Law 102-391).        The IMF (International Monetary Fund) is an agency of the U.N.      (Black's Law Dictionary 6th Ed. page 816)          The United States has NOT had a Treasury since 1921 (41 Stat. Ch 214 page 654)          The U.S. Treasury is now the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Presidential Documents Volume 24-No. 4 page 113, 22 U.S.C. 285-2887)          The United States does not have any employees because there is no longer a United States! No more reorganizations. After over 200 years of bankruptcy it is finally over. (Executive Order 12803)       The FCC, CIA, FBI, NASA and all of the other alphabet gangs were never  part of the U.S. government, even though the "U.S. Government" held stock in the agencies. (U.S. v Strang, 254 US491 Lewis v. US, 680 F.2nd, 1239)          Social Security Numbers are issued by the U.N. through the IMF (International Monetary Fund). The application for a Social Security Number is the SS5 Form. The Department of the Treasury (IMF) issues the SS5 forms and not the Social Security Administration. The new SS5 forms do not state who publishes them while the old form states they are "Department of the Treasury". (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111 Subpart B. 422.103 (b)   There are NO Judicial Courts in America and have not been since 1789. Judges do not enforce Statutes and Codes. Executive Administrators enforce Statutes and Codes. (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428, 1 Stat 138-178)          There have NOT been any judges in America since 1789. There have just been administrators.  (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428 1 Stat. 138-178)          According to GATT (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) you MUST have a Social Security number. (House Report (103-826)          New York City is defined in Federal Regulations as the United Nations. Rudolph Guiliani stated on C-Span that "New York City is the capital of the World." For once, he told the truth. (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations)    You CANNOT use the U.S. Constitution to defend yourself because you are NOT a party to it!  The U.S. Constitution applies to the CORPORATION OF THE UNITED STATES, a privately owned and operated corporation (headquartered out of Washington, DC) much like IBM (International Business Machines, Microsoft, et al) and NOT to the people of the sovereign Republic of the united States of America.  (Padelford Fay & Co. v The Mayor and Alderman of the City of Savannah 14 Georgia 438, 520)          America is a British Colony.  The United States is a corporation, not a land mass and it existed before the Revolutionary War and the British Troops did not leave until 1796 (Republica v. Sweers 1 Dallas 43, Treaty of Commerce 8 Stat 116, Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80, IRS Publication 6209, Articles of Association October 20, 1774)     Britain is owned by the Vatican. (Treaty of 1213)          The Pope can abolish any law in the United States (Elements of Ecclesiastical Law Vol. 1, 53-54)          A 1040 Form is for tribute paid to Britain (IRS Publication 6209)          The Pope claims to own the entire planet through the laws of conquest and discovery.  (Papal Bulls of 1495 & 1493)          The Pope has ordered the genocide and enslavement of millions of people.(Papal Bulls of 1455 & 1493)          The Pope's laws are obligatory on everyone.  (Bened. XIV., De Syn. Dioec, lib, ix, c. vii, n. 4. Prati, 1844 Syllabus Prop 28, 29, 44)          We are slaves and own absolutely nothing, NOT even what we think are our children.  (Tillman vs. Roberts 108 So. 62, Van Koten vs. Van Koten 154 N.E. 146, Senate Document 438 73rd Congress 1st Session, Wynehammer v. People 13 N.Y. REP 378, 481)          Military dictator George Washington divided up the States (Estates) in to Districts  (Messages and papers of the Presidents Volume 1 page 99 1828 Dictionary of Estate)        "The People" does NOT include you and me. (Barron vs. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore 32 U.S. 243)         It is NOT the duty of the police to protect you. Their job is to protect THE CORPORATION and arrest code breakers. (SAPP vs. Tallahassee, 348 So. 2nd. 363, REiff vs. City of Phila. 477 F. 1262, Lynch vs. NC Dept. of Justice 376 S.E. 2nd. 247)        Every thing in the "United States" is up for sale: bridges, roads, water, schools, hospitals, prisons, airports, etc, etc… Did anybody take time to check who bought Klamath Lake?? (Executive Order 12803)          "We are human capital" (Executive Order 13037)  The world cabal makes money off of the use of your signatures on mortgages, car loans, credit cards, your social security number, etc.           The U.N. – United Nations – has financed the operations of the United States government (the corporation of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) for over 50 years (U.S. Department of Treasury is part of the U.N. see above) and now owns every man, woman and child in America.         The U.N. also holds all of the land of America in Fee Simple.      The good news is we don't have to fulfill "our" fictitious obligations. You can discharge a fictitious obligation with another's fictitious obligation.     Source: Stop The Pirates: These documents are NOT secret! They ARE a matter of Public Record.       The good news is we don't have to fulfill "our" fictitious obligations. You can discharge a fictitious obligation with another's fictitious obligation.  Source: Stop The Pirates: These documents are NOT secret! They ARE a matter of Public Record.   WEATHER MODIFICATION PATENTS  UPDATED 1891  US462795A – Method of Producing Rainfall  1914   US1103490A – Rain Maker  1917  US1225521A – Protection from Poisonous Gas In Warfare  1920  US1338343A – Process And Apparatus for The Production of Intense Artificial Clouds, Fogs, Or Mists  1924 US1512783A – Composition For Dispelling Fogs  1927 US1619183A – Process of Producing Smoke Clouds from Moving Aircraft  1928 US1665267A – Process of Predicting Artificial Fogs  1932 US1892132A – Atomizing Attachment for Airplane Engine Exhausts  1933 US1928963A – Electrical System and Method  1934 US1957075A – Airplane Spray Equipment  1936 US2045865A – Skywriting Apparatus US2052626A – Method of Dispelling Fog  1937 US2068987A – Process of Dissipating Fog  1939 US2160900A – Method for Vapor Clearing  1941 US2232728A – Method and Composition For Dispelling Vapors US2257360A – Desensitized Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate Explosive  1946 US2395827A – Airplane Spray Unit US2409201A – Smoke-Producing Mixture  1949 US2476171A – Smoke Screen Generator US2480967A – Aerial Discharge Device  1950 US2527230A – Method of Crystal Formation and Precipitation  1951 US2550324A – Process for Controlling Weather US2570867A – Method of Crystal Formation and Precipitation  1952 US2582678A – Material Disseminating Apparatus for Airplanes US2591988A – Production of TiO2 Pigments US2614083A – Metal Chloride Screening Smoke Mixture  1953 US2633455A – Smoke Generator  1954 US2688069A – Steam Generator  1955 US2721495A – Method and Apparatus for Detecting Minute Crystal Forming Particles Suspended in A Gaseous Atmosphere  1956 US2730402A – Controllable Dispersal Device  1957 US2801322A – Decomposition Chamber for Monopropellant Fuel  1958 US2835530A – Process for The Condensation Of Atmospheric Humidity and Dissolution Of Fog  1959 US2881335A – Generation Of Electrical Fields US2903188A – Control Of Tropical Cyclone Formation US2908442A – Method For Dispersing Natural Atmospheric Fogs And Clouds  1960 US2962450A – Fog Dispelling Composition US2963975A – Cloud Seeding Carbon Dioxide Bullet  1961 US2986360A – Aerial Insecticide Dusting Device  1962 US3044911A – Propellant System US3056556A – Method Of Artificially Influencing The Weather  1964 US3120459A – Composite Incendiary Powder Containing Metal Coated Oxidizing Salts US3126155A – Silver Iodide Cloud Seeding Generator US3127107A – Generation Of Ice-Nucleating Crystals US3131131A – Electrostatic Mixing In Microbial Conversions  1965 US3174150A – Self-Focusing Antenna System  1966 US3234357A – Electrically Heated Smoke Producing Device US3257801A – Pyrotechnic Composition Comprising Solid Oxidizer, Boron And Aluminum Additive And Binder US3274035A – Metallic Composition For Production Of Hygroscopic Smoke  1967 US3300721A – Means For Communication Through A Layer Of Ionized Gases US3313487A – Cloud Seeding Apparatus US3338476A – Heating Device For Use With Aerosol Containers  1968 US3410489A – Automatically Adjustable Airfoil Spray System With Pump  1969 US3429507A – Rainmaker US3430533A – Aircraft Dispenser Pod Having Self-Sealing Ejection Tubes US3432208A – Fluidized Particle Dispenser US3437502A – Titanium Dioxide Pigment Coated With Silica And Aluminum US3441214A – Method And Apparatus For Seeding Clouds US3456880 – Method Of Producing Precipitation From The Atmosphere  1970 US3518670 – Artificial Ion Cloud US3534906 – Control Of Atmospheric Particles US3545677 – Method Of Cloud Seeding  1971 US3601312 – Methods Of Increasing The Likelihood Of Precipitation By The Artificial Introduction Of Sea Water Vapor Into The Atmosphere Windward Of An Air Lift Region US3608810 – Methods Of Treating Atmospheric Conditions US3608820 – Treatment Of Atmospheric Conditions By Intermittent Dispensing Of Materials Therein US3613992 – Weather Modification Method US3630950 – Combustible Compositions For Generating Aerosols, Particularly Suitable For Cloud Modification And Weather Control And Aerosolization Process US3659785 – Weather Modification Utilizing Microencapsulated Material  1972 US3666176 – Solar Temperature Inversion Device US3677840 – Pyrotechnics Comprising Oxide Of Silver For Weather Modification Use  1973 US3722183 – Device For Clearing Impurities From The Atmosphere US3769107 – Pyrotechnic Composition For Generating Lead Based Smoke  1974 US3784099 – Air Pollution Control Method US3785557 – Cloud Seeding System US3795626 – Weather Modification Process US3808595 – Chaff Dispensing System US3813875 – Rocket Having Barium Release System To Create Ion Clouds In The Upper Atmosphere US3835059 – Methods Of Generating Ice Nuclei Smoke Particles For Weather Modification And Apparatus Therefore US3835293 – Electrical Heating Apparatus For Generating Super Heated Vapors  1975 US3877642 – Freezing Nucleant US3882393 – Communications System Utilizing Modulation Of The Characteristic Polarization Of The Ionosphere US3896993 – Process For Local Modification Of Fog And Clouds For Triggering Their Precipitation And For Hindering The Development Of Hail Producing Clouds US3899129 – Apparatus For Generating Ice Nuclei Smoke Particles For Weather Modification US3899144 – Powder Contrail Generation  1976 US3940059 – Method For Fog Dispersion  1977 RE29142 – Reissue Of Patent 3630950 US4042196 – Method And Apparatus For Triggering A Substantial Change In Earth Characteristics And Measuring Earth Changes  1978 US4096005 – Pyrotechnic Cloud Seeding Composition US4129252 – Method And Apparatus For Production Of Seeding Materials  1979 US4141274 – Weather Modification Automatic Cartridge Dispenser  1982 US4362271 – Procedure For The Artificial Modification Of Atmospheric Precipitation As Well As Compounds With A Dimethyl Sulfoxide Base For Use In Carrying Out Said Procedure  1983 US4402480 – Atmosphere Modification Satellite US4412654 – Laminar Microjet Atomizer And Method Of Aerial Spraying Of Liquids US4415265 – Method And Apparatus For Aerosol Particle Absorption Spectroscopy  1984 US4470544 – Method Of And Means For Weather Modification US4475927 – Bipolar Fog Abatement System  1986 US4600147 – Liquid Propane Generator for Cloud Seeding Apparatus  1987 US4633714 – Aerosol Particle Charge And Size Analyzer US4643355 – Method And Apparatus For Modification Of Climatic Conditions US4653690 – Method Of Producing Cumulus Clouds US4684063 – Particulates Generation And Removal US4686605 – Method And Apparatus For Altering A Region In The Earth's Atmosphere, Ionosphere, And/Or Magnetosphere US4704942 – Charged Aerosol US4712155 – Method And Apparatus For Creating An Artificial Electron Cyclotron Heating Region Of Plasma  1988 US4744919 – Method Of Dispersing Particulate Aerosol Tracer US4766725 – Method Of Suppressing Formation Of Contrails And Solution Therefor  1989 US4836086 – Apparatus And Method For The Mixing And Diffusion Of Warm And Cold Air For Dissolving Fog  1990 US48050 – Liquid Atomizing Apparatus For Aerial Spraying  1991 US4999637 – Creation Of Artificial Ionization Clouds Above The Earth US5003186 – Stratospheric Welsbach Seeding For Reduction Of Global Warming US5005355 – Method Of Suppressing Formation Of Contrails And Solution Therefor US5041834 – Artificial Ionospheric Mirror Composed Of A Plasma Layer Which Can Be Tilted  1992 US5104069 – Apparatus And Method For Ejecting Matter From An Aircraft US5174498 – Cloud Seeding  1994 US5357865 – Method Of Cloud Seeding  1995 US5425413 – Method To Hinder The Formation And To Break-Up Overhead Atmospheric Inversions, Enhance Ground Level Air Circulation And Improve Urban Air Quality US5441200 – Tropical Cyclone Disruption  1996 US5556029 – Method Of Hydrometeor Dissipation (Clouds)  1997 US5628455 – Method And Apparatus For Modification Of Supercooled Fog US5639441 – Methods For Fine Particle Formation  1998 US5762298 – Use Of Artificial Satellites In Earth Orbits Adaptively To Modify The Effect That Solar Radiation Would Otherwise Have On Earth's Weather  1999 US5912396 – System And Method For Remediation Of Selected Atmospheric Conditions US5922976 – Method Of Measuring Aerosol Particles Using Automated Mobility-Classified Aerosol Detector US5949001 – Method For Aerodynamic Particle Size Analysis US5984239 – Weather Modification By Artificial Satellite  2000 US6056203 – Method And Apparatus For Modifying Supercooled Clouds  2001  US20030085296A1 – Hurricane And Tornado Control Device 

"Isn't it odd, we always picture people the way they were... Never as they really are." — Bette Davis  If you've ever looked at history and wondered, "Who are these people?" and "What was really happening behind the scenes?" this podcast invites you to join the search for answers. Today's show, The American Experiment, explores the people, institutions, ideas, and power structures that shaped the modern world. From ancient trade routes and royal dynasties to banking networks, industrial fortunes, wars, immigration, eugenics, intelligence operations, and artificial intelligence, the show follows the historical connections that continue to influence society today. Rather than focusing only on dates and events, host Dianne Emerson asks a simple question: Who are these people? Each episode examines history, research, forgotten documents, and controversial topics through a long-form investigative lens. The American Experiment connects the Gilded Age, scientific movements, political systems, financial institutions, military power, and cultural change into a broader narrative designed for listeners who enjoy independent research and critical thinking. Whether exploring ancient Egypt, immigration, the Federal Reserve, human experimentation, technology, or modern influence networks, the goal remains the same: to understand how the systems around us were built and who built them. Music:  Chicago - Does Anybody Really Know What Time It Is? (Official Audio)   Timeline and History of Ruling Class The Jesuits Kissinger/War Criminal The Elites are Transgenders The Pilgrims Progressive Era - Wikipedia Gilded Age - Wikipedia Bank for International Settlements - Wikipedia BANKING CARTEL: Bank for International Settlements (BIS) – The Vatican's Central Bank | RIELPOLITIK The Hidden Hand that Shaped History | Vigilant Citizen The Egyptian Nightmare. Part 4. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the Great Pyramids were still under construction The Hiroshima Myth | Mises Institute Caravan To Midnight - Episode 269 David McGowan Talks Boston Marathon The Secret World Government or "The Hidden Hand": The Unrevealed in History To bring this matter more into focus from the human tragedy standpoint, I recommend the reading of a book entitled Hiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Physician, August 6, September 30, 1945, by Michiko Hachiya. He was a survivor of Hiroshima and kept a daily diary about the women, children and old men that he treated on a daily basis in the hospital. The doctor was badly injured himself but recovered enough to help others and his account of the personal tragedies of innocent civilians who were either badly burned or died as a result of the bombing puts the moral issue into a clear perspective for all of us to consider.    [PDF] [EPUB] Hiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Physician, August 6-September 30, 1945 Download The Sinking Of The Lusitania: Cover-Up, Conspiracy, Or Carelessness? The Sinking of the Lusitania | Council on Foreign Relations Did the Jews Build the Pyramids? – The Israel Bible Pyramid Research:  gorojanin_iz_b — LiveJournal New chronology (Fomenko) - Wikipedia Anatoly Fomenko - Wikipedia The Anatomy of Anatoly Fomenko | The Unexpected Cosmology NEW CHRONOLOGY. A.Fomenko, G.Nosovsky About Anatoly Civil War Research- Dave McGowan:  The Center for an Informed America | The Internet's Best Source for Disinformation-free News and Commentary!   Ernst Fraenkel | Open Library Ernst Fraenkel (political scientist) - Wikipedia America Is Watching the Rise of a Dual State - The Atlantic Ernst Fraenkel – a Jewish lawyer who resisted the Nazis | Review of Democracy Ernst Fraenkel warned of a dual state; is it coming true in America? – The Forward The Dual State - Wikipedia [PDF] The Dual State Download   Is JD Vance Leaking To The New York Times? The Wall Street Journal reported on Monday that Donald Trump Jr. and Eric Trump are investing in a Florida-based drone company called Powerus that "is vying to meet fresh demand from the Pentagon" for drones that started when the Trump administration banned foreign-made drones and drone components from the US in December.  Trump's Sons Accused of Trying to Profit Off Iran War With Drone Investment | Truthout New Drone Maker Partly Owned by Trump Sons Hopes to Win Pentagon Contracts Do you have a psychopath in your life?  The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 How they flip sex with hormones:  Ukraine is Run by TRANSGENDERS Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Tune in: Podcast Links – Psychopath In Your Life Download Pods here - one click and pods load to any device fully titled and ready to listen to or archive:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life The American Experiment is not a conspiracy term or something hidden—it's been used openly for centuries by presidents, judges, historians, journalists, and political thinkers.  What they usually mean is:  Can a large nation govern itself through a constitutional republic without a king, hereditary aristocracy, or dictator?  At the time of the American founding, that was not considered a settled question. Most large countries were monarchies or empires. Examples include:  George Washington referred to the success of the new republic as something the world was watching.   Alexis de Tocqueville studied the United States in the 1830s as a unique democratic experiment.   Ronald Reagan frequently referred to the American experiment in freedom.   George H. W. Bush used the phrase.   Barack Obama used it.   Joe Biden has used it as well.   Historically, the conventional meaning is: "An experiment in republican self-government."  In other words, can citizens govern themselves through elections, constitutions, and institutions over long periods of time?  "If it is an experiment, then who designed it, who benefits from it, and what exactly is being tested?"  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Dutch New York Timeline 1609 Henry Hudson sails for the Dutch and explores the river that becomes the Hudson River. 1624 Dutch settlers establish the colony of New Netherland. 1625–1626 Settlement established on Manhattan. The Dutch call it: New Amsterdam 1600s–1664 New Amsterdam grows as a Dutch trading port. 1664 The English seize New Amsterdam without a major battle. They rename it: New York City after James Stuart, the Duke of York. 1674 The Dutch formally give up claims to New Netherland. What Happened to the Dutch? The Dutch did not leave. Many stayed. Families such as: Van Rensselaer Schuyler Stuyvesant Van Cortlandt Roosevelt remained wealthy and influential. Fast Forward 1700s–mid 1800s The descendants of those Dutch and early English merchant families become New York's old-money crowd. 1870s–1900 Gilded Age fortunes appear: Vanderbilt Rockefeller Morgan Carnegie Harriman 1880s–1920s Old families and new industrial fortunes increasingly intermarry. New York started as Dutch New Amsterdam, became English New York in 1664, the Dutch elite largely stayed put, and over the next 250 years their descendants gradually merged with the railroad, oil, steel, and banking fortunes of the Gilded Age. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:22d4bee3-817a-4694-8ae1-31707d693e93-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:22d4bee3-817a-4694-8ae1-31707d693e93-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> (1609–1626), the ancestors of today's Roma (Gypsies) were already living in many parts of Europe. By the early 1600s, Roma populations could be found in: Spain Portugal France England Scotland German states of the Holy Roman Empire Italy The Low Countries (modern Netherlands and Belgium) Hungary Poland The Balkans Ottoman territories For the Dutch specifically, Roma had been present in the Low Countries since at least the 1400s and 1500s. By the time the Dutch founded New Netherland, Roma communities were already known in Dutch territory, although they often faced restrictions, expulsions, or anti-vagrancy laws. As for New Amsterdam itself, there is very little evidence that Roma were among the first Dutch settlers who established the colony in the 1620s. The early population was mainly: Dutch settlers Walloons (French-speaking Protestants from present-day Belgium) Germans Scandinavians Africans (many brought through Dutch slavery) Some Sephardic Jews later in the 1600s If any Roma individuals arrived in New Netherland during the Dutch period, they were not present in large enough numbers to leave a clear historical record. A rough snapshot would look like this: 1609–1626 Netherlands Roma already present in Europe for roughly 200 years. Often marginalized and subject to restrictions. New Netherland / New Amsterdam Primarily Dutch, Walloon, German, Scandinavian, and African populations. No significant documented Roma community. The Roma migration into Europe had largely occurred much earlier: So when Henry Hudson was exploring the Hudson River in 1609, Roma communities were already scattered across much of Europe, but they were not a major part of the early Dutch colonial population in New Amsterdam. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:22d4bee3-817a-4694-8ae1-31707d693e93-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:22d4bee3-817a-4694-8ae1-31707d693e93-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-8" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> John Jacob Astor (1763–1848) Born in Germany, John Jacob Astor immigrated to the United States after the American Revolution. He built an enormous fortune through the fur trade, real estate, and international commerce. By the early 1800s, he had become one of the wealthiest men in America and established the foundation of what became the Astor family fortune. William Backhouse Astor Sr. (1792–1875) The fortune then passed to his son, William Backhouse Astor Sr. Rather than creating a new business empire, he expanded and carefully managed the wealth his father had accumulated. Under his leadership, the family's New York real estate holdings grew substantially, increasing the family's influence and wealth. William Backhouse Astor Jr. (1829–1892) William Backhouse Astor Jr. inherited much of the family's wealth and continued to oversee the Astor real estate empire. During the Gilded Age, the Astor's became one of the most powerful and socially prominent families in New York City. The family's name became synonymous with wealth, privilege, and high society. John Jacob Astor IV (1864–1912) A great-grandson of the original John Jacob Astor, John Jacob Astor IV inherited a portion of the vast family fortune. He became a businessman, inventor, real estate developer, and author. He helped develop several landmark New York properties, including the original Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. His life ended when he died aboard the RMS Titanic during its maiden voyage in 1912. In simple terms, the Astor fortune was created by John Jacob Astor, preserved and expanded by his son William Backhouse Astor Sr., strengthened during the Gilded Age by William Backhouse Astor Jr., and carried into the twentieth century by John Jacob Astor IV. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-15" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-15" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1492 Christopher Columbus reaches the Americas while sailing for Spain. His voyages open sustained European exploration, colonization, trade, and competition in the Western Hemisphere. 1609 Henry Hudson, sailing for the Dutch, explores the river that becomes known as the Hudson River. 1624 Dutch settlers establish the colony of New Netherland. 1625–1626 A settlement is established on Manhattan Island. The Dutch call it: New Amsterdam 1600s–1664 New Amsterdam grows as a Dutch trading port and commercial center. 1664 The English seize New Amsterdam without a major battle. They rename it: New York after James Stuart, the Duke of York, who later becomes King James II of England. 1674 The Dutch formally give up claims to New Netherland. What Happened to the Dutch? The Dutch did not leave. Many stayed. Families such as: Van Rensselaer Schuyler Stuyvesant Van Cortlandt Roosevelt remained wealthy and influential. The colony changed hands. The city changed names. Many of the leading families remained. Dutch New Amsterdam became English New York. English New York became British New York. British New York became American New York. Throughout these changes, many of the same families continued to own land, conduct business, and hold influence. 1700s–Mid-1800s The descendants of Dutch and early English merchant families become New York's old-money elite. Their wealth comes from: Land ownership Shipping Trade Banking Real estate 1870s–1900 The Gilded Age arrives. New industrial fortunes emerge: Vanderbilt Rockefeller Morgan Carnegie Harriman These fortunes are built from: Railroads Oil Steel Finance Large-scale industry 1880s–1920s The old New York families and the new industrial fortunes increasingly intermarry. Business relationships expand. Social clubs overlap. Universities, foundations, and financial interests become intertwined. Over time, the distinction between old money and new money begins to fade. New York began as the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, became English New York in 1664, the Dutch elite largely remained in place, and over the next 250 years their descendants gradually merged with the railroad, oil, steel, and banking fortunes of the Gilded Age. Much of the old-money and new-money elite came out of the same North Atlantic commercial world centered around the Netherlands, Britain, and adjacent German-speaking regions. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-19" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1b7fb1a5-aabf-4080-a047-30d39f292514-19" data-testid= "conversation-turn-40" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Family Generally Associated Origin Modern Country Astor German (born in Waldorf, Baden) Germany Schuyler Dutch Netherlands Van Rensselaer Dutch Netherlands Stuyvesant Dutch Netherlands Van Cortlandt Dutch Netherlands Roosevelt Dutch Netherlands Livingston Scottish United Kingdom De Lancey French Huguenot France Goelet French Huguenot (via Netherlands) France Rhinelander German Germany   Old New York / Pre-Gilded Age Crowd Most roots trace to: Netherlands England Scotland France (Huguenots) Germany These families generally arrived between the 1600s and early 1800s. Gilded Age / New Money Crowd Family Generally Associated Origin Modern Country Vanderbilt Dutch Netherlands Rockefeller German Germany Carnegie Scottish United Kingdom Morgan Welsh / English United Kingdom Harriman English United Kingdom Gould English United Kingdom Mellon Scottish-Irish United Kingdom Duke English United Kingdom Flagler English United Kingdom The surprise is that the "new money" crowd wasn't arriving from some entirely different part of the world. Many were still from the same North Atlantic population stream: Dutch English Scottish Welsh German French Protestant The difference was less where they came from and more how they made their money. Old New York Money Dutch merchants Colonial landowners Shipping Banking Real estate Main origins: Netherlands England Scotland France Gilded Age Money Railroads Oil Steel Finance Industry Main origins: Netherlands England Scotland Germany Wales Vanderbilts—often viewed as the classic "new money" family—were actually Dutch in origin, just like many of the old New York families. They were not outsiders geographically; they were outsiders because their fortune exploded to a scale that challenged the existing social hierarchy. That's one reason the line between "old money" and "new money" becomes blurry when you look closely at the family origins. Late 1500s Robert Browne advocates separation from the Church of England. Early 1600s Many Separatists leave England for the more tolerant Dutch Republic. Cities such as: Amsterdam Leiden become refuges. 1620 One group leaves Leiden aboard the Mayflower and establishes Plymouth Colony. What About Those Who Stayed? This is where your observation gets interesting. Not everyone left. Many English, Dutch, merchant, banking, and religious communities remained in the Netherlands. The Dutch Republic continued to be one of the great commercial and financial centers of Europe throughout the 1600s. So you have several overlapping streams: English Separatists who eventually become Pilgrims. Dutch merchant families. English merchants operating in Dutch cities. French Huguenot refugees. German merchants. International banking and trading networks. Over the next two centuries these populations intermingle in various ways. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 70 AD — Destruction of the Second Temple The Romans destroy the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Jewish communities already exist throughout the Roman world and continue to expand across the Mediterranean. Many Jews live in: Judea Italy North Africa Asia Minor 200–500 AD — Jewish Communities Established in Roman Italy Jewish communities are well documented in Rome and other Italian cities. Some historians believe a portion of the ancestors of later Ashkenazi Jews lived in Italy during this period. 800–900 AD — Jewish Communities Appear in the Rhineland Jewish settlements become established in the Rhineland region of what is now western Germany. Major centers include: Mainz Worms Speyer These communities become important centers of Jewish learning, trade, and religious scholarship. 900–1100 AD — The Name "Ashkenaz" Becomes Associated with German Lands In Jewish tradition, the biblical figure Ashkenaz appears in Genesis. During the early medieval period, Jewish scholars began using the name Ashkenaz to refer to German lands. Jews living in German-speaking regions became known as Ashkenazi Jews. Their customs became known as Ashkenazi traditions. Their language eventually developed into Yiddish, combining German dialects with Hebrew and other influences. 962 AD — Holy Roman Empire Begins  Otto I Holy Roman Empire Otto I was crowned emperor by the Pope. Most historians use this date as the true beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto I was crowned emperor by Pope John XII, the Bishop of Rome. At that time, the Church was what historians usually call the Western Christian Church or the Latin Church. The formal split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church had not yet occurred. 962 AD, Pope John XII was the Pope of the unified Western Church. Modern historians often say "Catholic Pope" because the office later became the head of the Roman Catholic Church. Strictly speaking, the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches had not yet formally separated. This empire was centered on German-speaking lands but included parts of: Germany Austria Switzerland Czech lands Northern Italy Low Countries For centuries it became the dominant political structure in Central Europe. The Rhineland Jewish communities developed within territories that became part of the Holy Roman Empire. Most historical and linguistic evidence suggests Roma ancestors were still moving westward from the Indian subcontinent through Persia, Armenia, and the Byzantine world. 1000–1100 AD — Major Ashkenazi Centers Flourish The cities of: Mainz Worms Speyer become leading centers of Ashkenazi religious and cultural life. Many foundations of Ashkenazi law, custom, and scholarship are established during this period. 1000–1200 AD — Roma Appear in Historical Records  The earliest historical references associated with Roma populations begin appearing in Byzantine territories and southeastern Europe during this general period. 1020–1030 AD — Habsburg Castle Built The Habsburg family built its ancestral castle in what is now Switzerland. At roughly this time, there is no evidence that Roma populations had yet reached Switzerland. 1054 AD — Great Schism  The churches centered in Rome and Constantinople formally split into what later became known as: Roman Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church The Pope who crowned Otto I in 962 AD belonged to the unified Western Church that existed before this formal separation. 1096 AD — First Crusade  Crusader armies attack numerous Jewish communities in the Rhineland. Massacres occur in: Mainz Worms Speyer These events become a major turning point in Ashkenazi history. 1100–1500 AD — Migration into Eastern Europe Many Ashkenazi Jews gradually migrate eastward. Large communities develop in: Poland Lithuania Bohemia Hungary Later Ukraine and Belarus 1200–1300 AD — Roma Likely Present in Northern Italy  While exact dates remain uncertain, many historians believe Roma groups had reached parts of Italy by the 1200s or early 1300s through migration routes from the Balkans and Byzantine territories. 1400–1450 AD — Roma Documented in Switzerland  Historical records begin showing Roma groups in Switzerland during the 15th century. By this period, Roma communities were appearing across much of Central Europe, including areas controlled by the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. The Habsburg family and castle were established roughly 400 years before Roma populations are clearly documented in Switzerland. The first clear Swiss records appear during the 1400s, though some historians note that mobile populations may have been present earlier without surviving written documentation. 1500–1800 AD — Eastern Europe Becomes the Center of Ashkenazi Life The largest Ashkenazi populations are now located in Eastern Europe rather than Germany. Yiddish culture expands across the region. The term "Ashkenazi" is tied to Jewish communities in the German-speaking lands roughly around 900–1100 AD, but the ancestors of those communities were present in Europe centuries earlier, especially in Italy and along the Rhine. Written records show when chroniclers noticed and recorded them, but mobile populations may have been present earlier without leaving surviving documentation. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:5e49b221-98af-466d-bcff-07c2640bbaa3-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:5e49b221-98af-466d-bcff-07c2640bbaa3-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 962 AD — Holy Roman Empire Begins Otto I Holy Roman Empire Otto I was crowned emperor by the Pope. Most historians use this date as the true beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto I was crowned emperor in 962 AD by Pope John XII, the Bishop of Rome. At that time, the Church was what historians usually call the Western Christian Church or the Latin Church. The formal split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church had not yet occurred. In 962 AD, Pope John XII was the Pope of the unified Western Church. Modern historians often say "Catholic Pope" because the office later became the head of the Roman Catholic Church. Strictly speaking, the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches had not yet formally separated. This empire was centered on German-speaking lands but included parts of: Germany Austria Switzerland Czech lands Northern Italy Low Countries For centuries it became the dominant political structure in Central Europe. Roma Context At the time of Otto I's coronation in 962 AD, there is no evidence that Roma populations had yet reached Central Europe. Most historical and linguistic evidence suggests Roma ancestors were still moving westward from the Indian subcontinent through Persia, Armenia, and the Byzantine world. c. 1000–1200 AD — Roma Appear in Historical Records The earliest historical references associated with Roma populations begin appearing in Byzantine territories and southeastern Europe during this general period. c. 1020–1030 AD — Habsburg Castle Built The Habsburg family built its ancestral castle in what is now Switzerland. At roughly this time, there is no evidence that Roma populations had yet reached Switzerland. 1054 AD — Great Schism The churches centered in Rome and Constantinople formally split into what later became known as: Roman Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church The Pope who crowned Otto I in 962 AD belonged to the unified Western Church that existed before this formal separation. c. 1200–1300 AD — Roma Likely Present in Northern Italy While exact dates remain uncertain, many historians believe Roma groups had reached parts of Italy by the 1200s or early 1300s through migration routes from the Balkans and Byzantine territories. c. 1400–1450 AD — Roma Documented in Switzerland Historical records begin showing Roma groups in Switzerland during the 15th century. By this period, Roma communities were appearing across much of Central Europe, including areas controlled by the Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire. Thus, the Habsburg family and castle were established roughly 400 years before Roma populations are clearly documented in Switzerland. The first clear Swiss records appear several centuries later, during the 1400s, though some historians note that mobile populations may have been present earlier without surviving written documentation. Ancient Egypt Timeline Before Egypt c. 10,000–5000 BC Hunter-gatherers live along the Nile. Gradual development of farming communities. c. 5000–3100 BC Villages grow into regional kingdoms. Trade develops along the Nile.   Egypt Becomes a Kingdom c. 3100 BC Upper and Lower Egypt Unified Traditionally associated with Narmer (sometimes called Menes). Egypt becomes one of the world's first large unified states. Pyramid Age c. 2686–2181 BC Old Kingdom Often called the "Age of the Pyramids." c. 2630 BC Step Pyramid Built Built for Pharaoh Djoser. Generally considered Egypt's first major pyramid.     c. 2580–2560 BC Great Pyramid of Giza Built Built for Pharaoh Khufu. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. c. 2558–2532 BC Pyramid of Khafre c. 2510 BC Pyramid of Menkaure These three pyramids form the famous Giza complex. c. 2500 BC Great Sphinx Constructed Likely built during the reign of Khafre. Middle Kingdom c. 2055–1650 BC Egypt reunifies after a period of instability. Expansion of trade and government. New Kingdom — Egypt's Empire c. 1550–1070 BC Egypt reaches the height of its power. Major rulers include: Hatshepsut Akhenaten Tutankhamun Ramesses II c. 1332–1323 BC King Tut Reigns 1279–1213 BC Ramesses II Reigns One of Egypt's most famous pharaohs. Foreign Conquests Begin 525 BC Persian Conquest Egypt conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. Greeks Arrive 332 BC Alexander the Great Conquers Egypt Alexander the Great enters Egypt. Founded the city of Alexandria. 305–30 BC Ptolemaic Dynasty Greek rulers govern Egypt. Cleopatra 69 BC Birth of Cleopatra 51–30 BC Reign of Cleopatra VII Last major ruler of ancient Egypt. 30 BC Egypt Becomes Roman After Cleopatra's death, Egypt is absorbed into the Roman Empire. Christianity 1st–4th Centuries AD Christianity spreads throughout Egypt. Alexandria becomes one of the most important centers of Christian scholarship. Islamic Egypt 641 AD Arab Conquest Egypt becomes part of the early Islamic world. Arabic gradually replaces earlier languages. Islam becomes the dominant religion. Ottoman Egypt 1517 AD Ottoman Empire Takes Egypt Egypt becomes part of the Ottoman Empire. Modern Egypt 1798 Napoleon Invades Egypt Europe's fascination with ancient Egypt explodes. 1869 Suez Canal Opens Egypt becomes one of the most strategically important locations on Earth. 1882 British Occupation Begins 1922 Formal Egyptian Independence 1952 Egyptian Revolution Monarchy ends. Egypt keeps showing up in history. It wasn't just another kingdom—it was one of the oldest and longest-lasting civilizations on Earth, sitting at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and the Mediterranean. Egyptian Nightmare 8. Completion of the pyramids in the paintings of old masters with Egyptian subjects In a large review of the evidence about the pyramids of Giza , we found out that until the beginning of the 19th century, not a single witness, traveler, scientist, cartographer, Egyptologist, even living in Cairo for months, showed the Great Pyramids in such a number and location, size and shape that correspond to the real ones. Although from anywhere in old Cairo and, of course, from the Nile, the Great Pyramids, their number, location, shape are visible as in a showcase. There can be only one reason for this: before the above-mentioned period, these and such pyramids did not yet exist, but they were thrown into the mass consciousness on a large scale through literature and science. In a large survey of ancient and medieval sources of ten posts, starting with this , we found out that the first real elements of the Great Pyramid appeared only in the 16th century. It first calculated its real form in 1798-1801 and published in 1822 by the Napoleonic Commission. It was first photographed and opened to the public in 1839. The pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure were completed in the period between the work of the Commission and Giza and 1839. Well, until the pyramids were ready, they were thrown in, and not only in written sources. Today we will consider the most interesting event of the XVI-XVIII centuries - the painting of pyramids in the paintings of old masters of all major European trends on biblical themes with Egyptian subjects. Admiring. This is a canvas by Domenico Domenieri (1581-1641), a prominent representative of the Bolognese school in the Baroque era, the mentor of Poussin and Lorrain, the predecessor of classicism. "Landscape with the Flight into Egypt". It was written around 1605. And in the landscape there is a strange and funny detail - pyramids, through which the details of the landscape shine through. It is clear that this was not done by the author. The hand of a master simply cannot do such an outrage, and compositionally the pyramids are generally superfluous here. They were slapped on the picture by a not very skillful painter. Another version of this painting by Domenichino, perhaps lost or simply not exhibited online, inspired by the English engraver William Byrne (1743–1805) in 1766, who innocently depicted the painted pyramid. Thank you for this mudraya-ptica find. The pyramid there is like the fifth wheel in a cart, drawn with childish mistakes that the master could not make. The top is incorrectly attached, the draftsman simply forgot about the lower part. In the painting, the pyramid must have been stumbled on top of the trees, and the branches show through its facet. The engraver copied this too. * The first examples of this kind were suggested by   blogger nezvanov - thanks to him! A small study confirmed that there was a whole campaign to dot pyramids into the paintings of old masters with Egyptian subjects. A prominent representative of Romanism, a Dutch painter and architect of the Renaissance, a student of Dürer, Jan van Scorel (1495-1562). "Madonna and Child", 1530-1531. * Frolicking from the heart Niccolò dell'Abbate (1512-1571), painted around 1560. Some of the pyramids were stylized as roofs, some were glued just like that. Very hard work! * French artist, one of the founders of classicism painting Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). Painting "The Return of the Holy Family from Egypt" 1629-1630. An obelisk and a pyramid were drawn. The sky not only shines through the pyramid, but even the texture of the master's brushstroke is visible. The stripes that appeared, with which the author marked the sky, were divided by the painter on the pyramid with thin pencil lines so that they did not show too much. "The Finding of Moses." 1651.   The pyramids are transparent. On another work by Poussin in 1638 with the same plot and title, the co-author wrote a ridiculous pyramid, for some unknown reason blocking the road going across the bridge, conscientiously reproduced its reflection in the water, but made a childish mistake. All reflections of objects and figures are as illuminated and shadowed as objects and figures, and only the reflection of the pyramid is completely in shadow, although its left face is illuminated.    Another work by Poussin with the same plot and title. The landscape and buildings shine through again, the second pyramid is written illiterately, apparently, Poussin's uninvited co-author tried to depict a shadow on the face of the pyramid, but made a mistake with the shape. In another version of this 1624 painting by Poussin, the co-author avoided transparency, but made other mistakes. The edges of the first pyramid turned out to be not depressed, but convex, like a mussel. The second pyramid demonstrates a complete inconsistency in drawing the lighting of the faces - the pyramid simply does not have them. Another mockery of Poussin and his "Moses Rescued from the Waters" of 1647.   Two pyramids were slapped in the middle ground, one, transparent, in the background. The two pyramids are oriented to the cardinal points in the same way, the sides facing the viewer are parallel. They should look like this to an observer standing on the line between the pyramids. The draftsman is familiar with the basics of three-dimensional geometry. But he is not friends with elementary logic. Why is the side of one pyramid facing the viewer illuminated, while the other is in shadow? * The French master, a follower of the classicism of Poussin, the elder of the French Academy of Painting and Sculpture, who painted Notre-Dame de Paris, Sébastien Bourdon (1616-1671), can be said to have been spared by the drawers. They did not become uro" The Finding of Moses" of 1655-60 with epic nonsense, modestly glued a bunch of crooked pyramids into the cityscape. If you don't look closely,You won't see it. The same cannot be said about the next author - a follower of Poussin. * The French successor of Poussin's classicism, who enjoyed great popularity during his lifetime, Nicolas Colombel (1644–1717), painted four paintings with one subject, "The Finding of Moses". On this canvas, the co-author conscientiously smeared the pyramids, nothing shines through. But why are they blue? All the buildings of the urban landscape are of a different color, only the mountains in the background can be blue. There is a gross violation of the law of tonal perspective, discovered and developed by Renaissance painters - it is shown in more detail on the example of Pompeian frescoes . And this violation of one of the canons of Renaissance painting suggests that the author of the pyramids in the picture is not a professional artist at all and is not well acquainted with painting.  And why is the line facing us shaded? The sun is behind the artist's back on the left, the figures and buildings are illuminated by a larger area on the left, on the right they are slightly shaded. The edge facing us must be in the sun. Look at the shadow of the girl's chin on her neck - it shows the direction of the light source, and it must illuminate both shaded faces on the inscribed pyramids. A very ignorant co-author complemented this picture. The second picture shows the same, but even more gross mistake. All the figures and buildings are brightly lit on the left, and only the inscribed pyramid has both visible faces in shadow. *   The pyramid was added to the painting of the Toulouse Cathedral of St. Joseph "The Triumph of Joseph" in 1657 by the French painter, poet, translator Hilaire Pader (1607-1677). The pyramid covered the clouds that appeared in relief on the addition, they tried to imitate them with some glare on the pyramid. And most importantly, look at the lower right edge of the pyramid. The imitator could not even draw the line of the pyramid's edge, forgot to paint over the right shadowed face under the horse's plume and trace the hand that he came across to restore, but it would be better not to do this.  I also draw attention to the unknown thing on the obelisk, ie to the lack of concepts of ancient Egyptian writing. She wasn't ready yet. For the first time, normal Egyptian writing and stylistics would be depicted by Frederick Norden 80 years later ... * And for this drawing we should praise the unknown drawer. A small, ridiculous green pyramid in the form of a round cone almost merges with the trees and practically does not spoil the landscape. Very carefully co-author aboutA painting by the master, Baroque painter from Lorraine,the leading landscape painter of Italy Claude Lorrai (1600-1682) "Landscape with Rest during the Flight to Egypt (Noon)" of 1666. He thought that there were enough antiquities in the landscape, there was no need to sculpt another one, and stylized the pyramid as the crown of a tree. Without any sarcasm: everyone would like this! * The painters made a monumental mockery of two paintings with a mirrored exposition "The Finding of Moses" by the French painter and engraver of the Regency style, the famous master of French book illustration Antoine Coypel (Antoine Coypel, 1661-1722). A pyramid was slapped into the background, something symbiotic between Pompey's Column with the Alexandria Lighthouse, and an obelisk. In the painting of 1695-97, the building on which it was slapped openly shines through the pyramid, through the symbiote - the blue of the celestial background, through the obelisk - the earth, clouds and the gap between the clouds. In the painting of about 1699, nothing shines through, but the painter has so handily inscribed the completed objects in the background that you want to tear off his hands and put them in the proper place, because they grow from the wrong place. Look at how a master, painter, engraver, outstanding illustrator inscribes the outline of objects, and how he smudges his additional objects on the background of the sky, at the same time climbing into the trees of the near ground with this background. * Italian painter and engraver of the Roman school, representative of the High Baroque Pier Francesco Mola (1612-1666). Three works with a single subject, painted around 1640. "Rest of the Holy Family on the Way to Egypt". Everything is clear with this outrage. Here this non-pyramid of ridiculous color is simply superfluous in every sense. In another version of this painting, the landscape shines through the absurdity. And here, it seems, another, large pyramid has been sketched. But the spotter did not finish it, one was enough for the customer. In the painting of the last quarter of the 17th century "The Finding of Moses" by the greatest artist of the Neapolitan school, a representative of the Italian Baroque Francesco Solimena (Francesco Solimena, 1657-1747), a pyramid was slapped not only transparent, but also with a sinuous tail. * The German painter of the Baroque school Johann Heiss (1640–1704), happily escaped a very serious mutilation of the painting "The Finding of Moses" 1696. Yes, according to custom, the painting received two transparent pyramids. But if you look closely, you will see that a huge third was sketched, the illuminated face of which remained in the form of an absurd ray coming out of the depths of glowy clouds on two figures that are in no way connected with the plot. Apparently, a sense of proportion broke through in the customer, and he stopped the absurdity, advising to make two small ones instead of a huge pyramid. And the performer disguised the edge as a beam, inscribing two tiny, brightly lit figures of who knows what. * The Dutch painter Adriaen (1659-1722) painted two paintings, A pyramid was inserted into the painting of 1697. In the painting of 1701 - no. Two pyramids were painted in the painting At first glance, there are no special mistakes, except for one: the pyramid in this place of the landscape is like a saddle on a cow. But if we look closer, we will find that the pyramid absurdly hangs in the air, starting from the line of the arch span of the bridge. The draftsman began to draw it from the line, but at the end of the work he forgot to connect it to the bottom. Or maybe the customer did not notice that the span line had not yet been painted over, and said: enough! Haste is felt in many drawings. But you can also feel the enthusiasm.   They were carried away by the work of Van der Werff and wedged a pyramid, through which the shore shines through, into the painting of 1696, which has nothing to do with Egyptian subjects. * The French representative of classicism, Charles (1636-1716), was slapped with a transparent obelisk and a pyramid in his of 1701. Moreover, the pyramid, judging by the grossly inept border of the crown of the tree, was made together with a piece of sky and a background, painting over the right part of the crown. The remains of the crown are still visible on the pyramid. * Italian painter of the Venetian school (1659-1734). 1711. No words. * French painter and engraver, one of the best landscape painters of the 17th century, Allegrain (1644-1736). The last quarter of the 17th century. Not only the lawn and the pedestal shine through, but also the walking figure.    Trying to disguise his disability, the secret co-author of the master of landscape Ista slapped into the ancient landscape absolutely ridiculous chimneys and smoke from one of them. * Nothing better than smearing a crooked pyramid over the details of the background and not even painting it over was invented by an uninvited draughtsman in the painting of 1737 by the court painter of the Polish King Jan III Sobieski, the Italian artist (1657-1745).* The painting of the founder of the English school of painting, (1697-1764) of 1746, was painted with two pyramids in the background and one in the middle, but they forgot to continue its edge. As a result, the pyramid hung in the air. And it was the help of engraver (1730-1771). Admire it.    First, the engraver mirrored the painting. Secondly, I removed one of the transparent pyramids, made the second one normally shaded. And most importantly, he worked on the main supervision: he narrowed the pyramid, moved it away from the parapet deep into the roof, let fire and smoke into exactly the place where the edge of the pyramid should appear after editing, ie covered it. Compare. * A sense of proportion preserved from great sabotage the painting of the Roman painter, the forerunner of neoclassicism, (1684–1764). An unsightly transparent pyramid almost does not spoil the landscape of the canvas of 1750. * The Italian Rococo and Neoclassical master (1702-1788) painted in 1768, which was repeated in a mirror version by the landscape painter and engraver , 1742–1788) and immortalized as by the engraver (1745–1799) in 1786.    From these dates follows a fairly accurate period of editing the picture in the form of drawing stupid transparent pyramids right in the floodplain of the Nile. This happened between 1768 and 1786. * Antonio Paroli 1688–1768), a Venetian painter from Gorizia, Slovenia, whose painting not only slapped a colorful, ugly pyramid that overshadows everything else, including the central figures of the plot, but also made it just as ugly illiterate, obscuring it from the side facing us, which is brightly illuminated on all other objects, buildings, figures of the picture. * The proofreader of the painting of the Spanish painter, engraver, illustrator, academician of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando (1757-1818) boldly began to draw the pyramid in front of the buildings in the background.   But he stopped when he saw the absurdity of the pyramid in its finished form, and left the detail in ridiculous uncertainty. * Another very late drawing, indicating that the pyramid planting event is not a one-time event. A French master of neoclassicism, who lived and worked in Italy, (1762-1801). 1792. Not only the landscape shines through here. There is a gross error with illumination. Pyramids cannot be illuminated in such different ways, as well as located in principle. In general, they are oriented with facets uniformly to the cardinal points.*Smile. Almost at random, he opened art auction sites selling old paintings by unknown artists. The mistakes of the draftsmen here are even more stupid than in the paintings of famous masters. by an unknown author, . It can be seen that at first the painter drew a small pyramid flush with the turret next to it, then he dared and drew the pyramid larger.   I was glad that I successfully inscribed it in the direction of the index finger of one of the heroines of the picture. In my joy, I forgot to finish the reflection, so it is not the pyramid that is reflected in the Nile at all, but the building on top of which the pyramid was slapped on. Perhaps because of this stupid mistake, art historians do not dare to determine whether the painting belongs to some great master of the Italian school of the 18th century. Well by a painter is simply illiterately supplemented. In a painting with a bright light, color, contrasting antithesis of the dark earth and the bright sky (with the transparent idea that the child came to this dark, predatory land as a messenger of heaven), the painter painted the earthly landscape with a pyramid in the tones of the sky. *   In the Egyptian plots of the old masters, there are illiterately inserted feastsAmides for every taste - with erroneous color schemes, with compositional flaws, and transparent pyramids - this is a song! What does the painting of pyramids in old paintings by unknown artists mean? About the same thing that is evidenced by the drawings of outstanding masters - about a broad and purposeful campaign. Almost all pyramids inserted in paintings and books, as a rule, differ greatly in shape from the real ones, copying in variations in Rome. Which means that no one has seen other examples of pyramids yet.    The time of the correction of the paintings directly follows from the dates of their creation - the beginning of the 18th century, although some recurrences of the throw-in campaign were carried out until the end of the century. Accordingly, it follows from this that before this boundary there were no pyramids, they were still being made. It should also be said that most of the Egyptian paintings of the old masters remained without pyramids, ie the throwing was made only by individual owners of galleries and paintings. Why did the pyramids wedge into the Egyptian paintings of the old masters? The stump is clear to fix in the brains of contemporaries that Egypt is a country of pyramids, and that they have always been in paintings and in Egypt. This is how history is made. Mind and health. The Egyptian Nightmare. Part 4. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the Great Pyramids were still under construction Apparently, the first photograph of the Sphinx, although the photographers C. & G. Zangaki and the years of shooting 1880-1900 are indicated. But the Sphinx was certainly taken earlier. Photographers took pictures of Egypt in the 1860s-1890s, but in many photos of the 1850-60s the condition of the Sphinx in its rear part is much "newer", the back part has been restored that this EARLIEST photo of the Sphinx was taken in the 1850s. The stele of Thutmose IV is not in place, there is only the upper part. It has just been brought. After that, the photo will be placed in its final place and given its final appearance. The back of the Sphinx, one of the four pedestals of construction debris and defective blocks, had not even been connected to the rest into a single torso. In 1867, this supposedly natural rock continued to be supplemented with a hardening mixture, bricks and debris. In 1870, it continued to be built up with the same trash. The stele in nature in all the following photos has become like this. This is how the construction on Giza ended. * Confirmation that by 1802 the objects of Giza - the pyramids and the Sphinx, had not yet been completed, has already been seen for two centuries. And they were left by none other than Dominique Vivant, with the title of Baron Denon (1747-1825). He participated in Napoleon's Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801; he published A Journey through Lower and Upper Egypt (1802). In 1802 he was appointed director general of the museums of France: the Central Museum of Art of the Republic (now the Louvre), Versailles, the Mint and the Medal Mint, and others. The Great Forgery of the Great Pyramids in Denon's Egyptian Albums Strange as it may seem, the most outstanding place in Egypt, Giza with the Great Pyramids and the Sphinx, is devoted to only two and a half pages. The scientist neglected the wonder of the world. In , you can leaf through his book. Pages. The pyramids are hastily sketched. So will a scientist who has come to acquaint the world with Egypt draw the greatest building in the world? No. The perspective of the Great Pyramids is not without difficulty. From left to right - Menkaure, Chephren, Cheops. But Khafre, who is taller than Cheops, does not have a cap, two of the three pyramids of the Queens have not yet been built. And the Nile is not here, and never was, it is east of Giza. For understanding. The engraver's gaze is directed to the north, he himself is south of the Great Pyramids. The Nile is far to the east, flowing parallel to the direction of view. This is exactly a sketch, a performance, nothing more. The author did not see the Pyramids of Giza where and how they are now, did not know that Khafre would be decorated with a hat.  But the plan of the tunnel and burial chambers is already there. This means that they were ready, but the sand had not yet been poured, the blocks formed on the spot were not lined. The entrance to the Pyramid of Cheops is drawn from life. Its height is 15.6 m. Next to it is a photo from 1867. Now the angle of this drawing is impossible. It can only be obtained by hanging in the air. As the observer approaches a tall object, his proportions change: the lower part increases relative to the upper one. You can also show the height of Denon's eyes in comparison with a modern drone shot. The drone was a little to the left and further, but there was no better angle. In Denon's time, there were no photographs and drones. The artist could only stand on the construction ground. Sketch of 1803-04 by Johann Adam Bergk (1769-1834). The same point of the artist, now hanging in the air. Knowing that the picture was impossible, the publisher mirrored it. * The picture with the Sphinx is the only one in Denon. Photos of the head from the north before 1931, when it was seriously changed during reconstruction, were rarely taken. There are two photos of an inaccurate angle of 1900 and 1906 and the most correct angle in the photo of the 1920s: ,2, . Under the shooting point of the last photo, the eastern necropolis of Giza, has been excavated and receives tourists. The hill is dug up. The tomb was discovered by archaeologist George Reisner on April 23, 1927. After that, it is impossible to take a photo of the Sphinx from this shooting point. And it makes no sense after the restoration of 1931, when the head of the Sphinx was significantly changed, the mane was added, the upper left part of the head was completed, etc. He had a sketch. The same as the builders. For the founder of the Louvre, who saw the unfinished objects of Egypt and dragged masterpieces from all over Europe, this is not surprising. But the builders seriously moved away from it, especially with the tilt and back of the head.Look at the upper part of the head. It is intact, although it became so only in 1931. And - smile. How the Sphinx was seen by contemporaries of Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. A drawing from 1799 where he personifies France (in one version), a force that dominates science (in another version). Did the French even see the Sphinx? * There is an in the album with allegedly Giza. Even in Google, you can't turn a 3D picture inside out to make it look like this. Pure creativity that cannot belong to a person who has seen the pyramids of Giza. This drawing in the book "Description of Egypt" of 1810 is another evidence of drawing from sketches and fantasies. The pyramids under Denon were still in the stage of heaps of soil. Khafren without a hat (the author did not know that it would be), the angle is impossible. The maximum that can be seen from the south side of the Sphinx is Cheops and Khafre, but not in profile of the Sphinx, as in the picture, but in semi-full face, from the southeast. To make it clear where everything is: Menkaure, Chephren and Cheops in a row, as in the picture, are possible only when viewed from the east, relative to the Sphinx - strictly full-face. * Let us recall the image of the Great Pyramid of Pushkin after communication with the Egyptologist Gulyanov and his notes-sketches in 1831. The poet sketched it in a near-finished, but still Roman form; No one has seen any other pyramids. Estimate the speed of construction from the height of the entrance in 1798 to the base of the summit in 1831. *And the most interesting thing. At the end of the Heidelberg edition, the author, having drawn all the objects, returns to Giza and supplements the album with two pages with a plan of the Great Pyramids and a view from the northeast - now of normal proportions and location, only without the cap of Chephren, and Cheops is covered at the entrance; see here Go to NYPL. In there are no such pages. Sound familiar, right? Some instances do not know anything about objects, and there is an instance with an object. We saw this trick. Before the construction of Stonehenge, there was an identical stuffing, so in the Diderot-d'Alembert encyclopedia there are copies of volume 15 with and without Stonehenge. And the ancient images of Stonehenge bear as little resemblance to the original as the images of the Great Pyramids. Denon's work is valuable because it recorded the monuments of Egypt made by the creators of history by the end of the 18th century. The facilities on Giza were not among them. They were completed before the era of photography. Abu Simbell will be completed 10 years after the Giza, and the . The formwork soil of history's builders in the first photo of the Great Pyramid The first photograph of the Great Pyramid has been found. An 1842 aquatint from an 1839 daguerreotype. The sand level is closer to the top than to the base. On the sand are the vanished huts of construction workers and a waste dump. Similar settlements existed at all Egyptian monuments and continued to exist for almost a century, right up until Palmyra, whose construction settlement, Tadmor, was liquidated in the 1930s. The 1839 camera has no zoom, but rows and individual blocks, invisible even with a modern zoom, are clearly visible – up to 50 of them (the pyramid has 203 rows in total). The field of view and the angle of the pyramid also preclude any long-distance photography. The top was shot from close range. Compare with a photo from 1890. The 180-year-old photograph cannot be combined with subsequent photos; a similar perspective is only possible from a vantage point high above the ground. In the photo from the surface, both the angle of the pyramid is different and the distance to the top is greater. The edge is quite recognizable at the bottom; the higher you go, the greater the discrepancy will be, according to the laws of geometry. This is how it turned out for me. Older ones on top of less old ones. The difference in height is due to the difference in angles. The photographer in 1839 was at a height of about half a pyramid and significantly closer to the top than the photographer in 1890; this is inevitable distortion. Close-up of the edge. The bottom matches exactly. Further on, about twenty rows were higher in 1839; either they sank into the sand in the first half century, or a large batch crumbled. Further on, it overlaps quite well, although distortions increase significantly due to the difference in shooting points at a height of half a pyramid in 1839 from the construction soil and from the current level in 1890. This is construction soil. Which, ten years before the first photo, during Pushkin's lifetime, I remind you, was generally at the level of the then-readiness of the object, which did not yet have a top. When was the Great Pyramid built? The final construction of the Great Pyramids is more or less clear. And when did the construction begin? The mastaba, the core of the pyramid, dates back to the 16th century. It is described in a book of 1591 by the Venetian consul, botanist Prosper Alpini (lived in Egypt in 1580-83). But the pyramids and topography are a fantasy out of the head. To use : ... The measure of length of the step is 0.71 m and is still like this."The second he describes as being at a stone's throwing distance, or rather less, from the Great Pyramid;its sides were smooth and without any stepsto climb it... The Third Pyramid was much smaller, also closed and . He observed , but he could not describe them, because he did not examine them..."Grigorovich-Barsky traveled to the holy places in 1723-47. He left 4 volumes of notes and 137 drawings, published in 1778 on the initiative of Potemkin. The third edition of the "Journey "is here. In 1727, he lived in Cairo for 8 months. He described a lot of the buildings, streets, the bazaar, mentioned the pyramids in one phrase. Which is followed by another, obvious stupidity: built by the pharaohs to save from the floods of the Nile. From which it is clear that the current pyramids did not exist under Barsky. They are still visible from anywhere in old Cairo, it is impossible not to see them. Illustrating the book, Barsky drew a panorama of Cairo from the opposite shore and did not find a place for the pyramids. Mosques and temples towering over the city, he described in great detail, the fortress in the highest place of the city. There are no pyramids. In Alexandria, he noted on the city plan the column of Pompey and the needles of Cleopatra - the only finished monuments of Ancient Egypt in the city at that time, objects incomparably small in comparison with the pyramids. He copied ancient Egyptian writings. And he described the greatest buildings in the world in one stupid phrase, between mentions of sights - the Cairo Stock Exchange and crocodiles. These are the Pharaoh's Mountains, made to wait out the floods.  And in the odes of Lomonosov's contemporary, there are a couple of mentions of pyramids without details. In other words, in the 1760s-70s, there were pyramid mounds in the project, a subtype of mountains were made in their place, the key figures of the workshop of the creators of history knew about them and wedged them into the current documents of the era. But they had no idea about the finished objects. A few words about the background of publications. It was during these years that the monumental inscribing of the Russian history of Tatishchev-Lomonosov into the existing ancient, ie world, took place. In 1749-62, Trediakovsky published a translation of Rollin's work "Ancient History" in 10 volumes 1730-38 years of publication, a compilation of Herodotus, Pliny, Strabo... In 1763-64, the history of Herodotus, the translator of Nartov, was published. In 1774-75 - 6 volumes of Diodorus Siculus... In this completeness, the pyramids were made, at first, as usual, in literature. * In Rollin's work, translated by Trediakovsky, there are two dimensions. The first one is clear. The width of the sides and the height of 800 ft is 244 m. The real sides are 230 m, the height is 138 m. The second time Rollin and Chazelle measured the sides at 110 fathoms - this is close, 234 m; and 77 3/4 sazhens high - 166 m, this is again the pyramid of Cestius. Let's keep silent about the smallest blocks of 30 ft (9 m), copied from the "testimony of Herodotus" (about him below). * John Greaves, an English antiquarian, astronomer, mathematician, and traveler to Egypt in 1639, boldly and thoroughly showed this in his book in 1646. * Well, in the very first project, the pyramids of Memphis were built not by pharaohs, but by Jews in captivity in Egypt. This was included in the book a Lithuanian prince who allegedly inspected the pyramids of Cairo, all 17))), in 1583. We admire what the said prince . 300 cubits, the side and height of the largest pyramid is 126 m. 70-80 cubits of the third pyramid of the harlot Rhodoppa is 29-34 m. In 1635-37, the writer and merchant Vasily Gagara lived for 2 years and 3 months in Cairo, but did not see the pyramids, but passed on what he knew in the book . In literature, they were still made by Jews, while away Egyptian slavery, in description they were a free fantasy. Inthe Narrative and Journey to the Holy Places of Daniel, Metropolitan of Ephesus between 1493 and 1499, published in 1747 from a copied copy of a manuscript that the copyist did not see, the pyramids, of which there are an indefinite number, are first given to the Egyptians. Although these are still the barns of Joseph, the son of Jacob, they were tombs before that. But in the we see quite real evidence of completion, seen in 1820. The pyramids are visible anywhere in old Cairo. In 1820, in low-rise Cairo, it was possible to recognize the way only to pyramids smaller than Pushkin's in 1831.     The Sphinx is not finished - there is no mane, there is a bow, the underground passage is still in the project. The third great pyramid of Menkaure does not yet exist, it is being made, pilgrims are not taken to the .   Considerable ploThe shchadkais larger than the Pushkin one of 1831.The entranceis from the ground itself- at the same height as Denon. have survived until the era of photographs - see the full photo. The descent from the entrance and the ascent to the center of the pyramid were also in the 17th century. In the place of the King's Chamber there with a resounding echo, and the natural .The Tsar's chamber of artificial granite still had to be made on the site left for it - in the chambers made of marble of the previous project. The height of the chambers means that at that time about 70 m of the pyramid was ready. The appearance of the Great Pyramids before and after construction Mentions in written sources and subsequent construction in nature are the usual algorithm of the creators of history. Biblical Babylon and Nineveh, like Egypt, were literary images, then they were made and discovered. Stonehenge was thrown into literary sources, then made in nature. Sacsayhuaman, which bears little resemblance to the real one, completed by the beginning of the 20th century, was thrown into de la Vega's book three centuries earlier. In the same way, pyramids were pointwise mentioned and drawn before construction.Starting with the Jewish granaries on the mosaics of San Marco, allegedly from the 12th century, in which the biblical Joseph collected bread and from which he distributed. Check out . They were drawn for their time in current literature and fabricated the literature of yesteryear. Almost all of them look like the pyramid of Cestius in Rome and do not look like the real ones. this engraving. are talking about this. Admire without words! The same pyramids from Cestius became a famous sign in 1776 when writing the US Declaration of Independence and decorated the dollar in 1778. Since the beginning of the 18th century, the pyramids have been drawn into the paintings of old masters on biblical themes, and this procedure left - ! - Followers. Details of the landscape and buildings shine through the pyramids)) Tsampieri Domenichino. Landscape with Flight into Egypt. C. 1605 Sebastiano Ricci. The Finding of Moses. 1711. No words.   Not only the lawn and the pedestal shine through, but also the walking figure.   And so on.Here we are talking about other drawings. All this means that the sample, the pyramid of Cestius, was there at the beginning of these stuffing; Rome is an old object, by the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries it was already ready. The Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx were not yet ready.  This is confirmed by the map in Denon's album of 1802, where the Sphinx is painted in no one knows what else, and by the Sphinx itself in the first photo, where it is still made of stacks of defective beams and castings, not yet covered by the "restorations of the pharaohs". Battle of the pyramids. Chronicle of the completion of Giza The so-called Battle of the Pyramids on July 21, 1798, was a remarkable battle. 29 killed, 260 wounded against a 20,000-strong French army; 10,000 killed, wounded, drowned, or captured from the combined army of Mamluks, Arabs, Janissaries, and others; a captured supply train; complete rout. It was immortalized by many contemporaries, including direct participants. For example, Denon. Let's start with him. Here are such remarkable pyramids, hardly resembling those of Giza, and who knows what next to them (the nearest pyramids are Saqqara, 14 km from Giza) in the panorama! Francois Andre Vincent. The Battle of the Pyramid, 1800. Antoine-Jean Gros (1771-1835). Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798. Jean-Victor Vincent Adam (1801-1866). Batalie des Pyramides. Engraving by Louis Francois Couche (1782-1849) and painting by Jacques Francois Joseph Swebach (1769-1823). There are such amazing pyramids! Francois Watteau. The Battle of the Pyramids (1798-99). And even more amazing. Dirk Langendijk. Battle of the Pyramids. 1803. And so it went... Louis-Francois, Baron Lejeune. The Battle of the Pyramids. 1808. A. Hugo, France Militaire Histoire des armees françaises de terre et de mer de 1792 a 1833 Tome 1, 1835. Napoleon's famous phrase, fake of course: "Soldiers, 40 centuries of greatness look down on you from the heights of these pyramids!" This is from the book My History of France. 1919. Richard Caton Woodville the Younger. Bonaparte in Egypt, 21st July, 1798. 1911. Jacques Maurice Henri Dieudonne (1868-1916). With these and other paintings, along with the so-called Battle of the Pyramids, the pyramids entered the subconscious of the French and others. It is more difficult to show creative imagination with maps; the genre is not the same. But cartographers showed their imagination, trying to somehow rhyme their works with the famous paintings. Let's admire Denon's map. North is at the bottom left. The fortress in the northern corner is Embabeh, around which the battle was fought, and the pyramids are in the opposite upper right corner. Since Denon swapped the pyramids, which should be in reverse order relative to the Nile—Khufu-Khephren-Mycerinus—this map is nowhere to be found. It's accompanied by this historiography, which supposedly includes pyramids, but it's unclear what kind: north is at the top right. For more advanced contemporaries, this diagram is shown, with supposedly regular pyramids. But this is more of an add-on from the publisher. And in the drawing, according to the impression, the same nonsense: Menkaure is gone, Chephren is bigger than Cheops, the hat is approved, but still abstract. Construction of the Mastaba of Cheops The mastaba core is older than the pyramid and requires a separate display. Let me remind you of the current appearance. In 1646, the above-mentioned historian and antiquarian Greaves showed the beginning of the hill filling and lining it with rows of blocks molded on the spot. The Grand Gallery has not yet been built, only a corridor has been laid. For it is impossible to be in the corridor and not notice the space narrowing upwards with a height of 8.5 m, in architecture - the so-called false vault. And there is no need to make a false vault if it is not planned to fill it. The above-mentioned Lucas, following the results of the journey of 1704-07, fixed the Gallery in its current form. It was then that the built-in cast-iron brackets were erected - the equipment of the Gallery's formwork boards. Norden, who visited Giza in 1737, and Pocock, in 1738, repeated Lucas, only under Pocock it was decided to make a wall to overcome the surface instead of a manhole in the pre-chamber, but returned to the manhole project. The French orientalist Claude-Étienne Savary was on Giza in 1776, published the book in 1786, echoed by Pocock, including his ignorance of the shape of the pyramid. And only in the report of the Napoleonic Commission by 1798 the first of five unloading chambers was made. It was discovered by the English consul Davison in 1765, about which he wrote to Professor White in 1779. Both hide the letter all their lives, only with their death did the letter see the light of day in , but Egyptologists hide it to this day. Google translation: I was surprised to find that this channel, which was supposed to end here, continues quite far down the pyramid. It used to be covered with rocks and sand; they were washed away last winter by the rain that seems to have reached this part of the pyramid. Only in one case can rains wash the corridors of the central mastaba: when there is no upper part of the pyramid above it, but only an insignificant part of the sand that barely covers the corridors and chambers. What did the builders do for almost a century? The body of the pyramid was filled with soil. The real form of which none of the witnesses saw, all of them have a copy of the pyramid of Cestius. Metamorphoses of Khafre Until the end of the 18th century, witnesses did not see the hat, it was not planned. It appeared in 1790, then disappeared and returned in 1820. In all respects, it was removed from the project, but returned to the finish of construction. But the appearance of the pyramid of Menkaure with a characteristic "cut" was not changed from the sketch. In the painting and drawing by Luigi Mayer of 1790, the location of the pyramids is absurd, they are drawn separately from sketches, but the view is close to the real ones. 1820 year. The explorer Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778-1823) knew that there would be a hat, but did not know what kind of hat it would be. I drew a conditional one. By 1822, the pyramids had established themselves in children's literature through the writings of the writer Atkins Wilson about Belzoni's travels. They are not remotely similar to the Giza ones. The rows of fake witnesses are getting funnier. Avraam Norov, a Russian scientist, writer, Minister of Public Education, brother of the Decembrist VS Norov and the poet AS Norov, in his book managed to say nothing but his emotions and a retelling of Herodotus in a wordy chapter about the pyramids, accompanying this with a picture from his head. Khafren without a hat, the Sphinx of fantasy, the location is impossible. From this corner with the Sphinx, you can see Khafre and Menkaure, and from the quadcopter - two of the Pyramids of the Queens behind Menkaure. But the future minister had a list of objects, without a doubt. Maybe, on the condition of participation in the historical spectacle, they become ministers? Meanwhile, witnesses continued to show the Sphinx on the plateau (1832)... then not on the plateau... head to the east... then to the West (1823)... with the Great Pyramids without caps... and with hats... And they did it until the 1850s. The year 1838 came. The hat is believable, but the shape is unprecedented. That is, the cap had already been made, but the pyramid, still unseen by anyone, was in the ground. A year before the first daguerreotype with the top of Cheops, Roberts plausibly drew the shape of Cheops and fantastically - Khafre and Menkaure, confirming that they were still in the ground. At the same time, he showed for the last time a century-old project with the fourth pyramid.  And finally - tadaaam! - the world's first authentic images of the pyramids. With real shapes, location, details. Their author is John Shae Perring (1813-1869). Works of 1839-42. The workshop was almost in time for the beginning of the era of photography. None of the witnesses who drew and drew the Giza pyramids on maps before, as we have seen, had seen them in person Along with the Pyramid of Cheops, the passage of al-Mamun was also made, at the same time as the legend of the event of al-Mamun itself was planted. Its only source is a fairy tale from the collection "A Thousand and One Nights" "The Story of al-Mamun and the Pyramids". It was not in the first edition of The Tales from the Arabian Nights of 1704-1717, nor is it in the Paris reprint of 1806. Included by later publishers. At the same time - since we are talking about Arabic fairy tales - with the alleged evidence of the pyramids of the medieval historian al-Masudi, which tests only to the fact that he and the publisher did not see the real objects of Giza. And in the "drawing of an unknown Arab author of the 13th century" there is still the same favorite pyramid of Cestius.  At the same time - about the beloved , whose height of the Pyramid of Cheops is 8 plethra (1 plethra 29.6-30.83 m) made of blocks 30 feet long. An error in the height of 80-100 m and stupidity with the length of the blocks only indicate that the author of Herodotus' testimony did not see the object. He has the same pyramid of Cestius, only larger, the author of the "testimony of Herodotus" did not know any other samples.  Illustration of the work of Herodotus, a contemporary of the publication. Today, scientists have carefully opened the ramps-embankments, along which slaves dragged 3 million blocks. They almost don't lie. There was an embankment. Only the sand for the core and the components for molding the shell blocks were carried on site. And only the Sphinx was completed in the 1840s. Therefore, in 1838, the famous Egyptologist Roberts did not look like himself and was located anywhere. In the 1840 book of the about his alleged excavations in 1837, the Sphinx is still taken out of the head, there are no steales between the paws, and a wide staircase to the Temple begins in front of it))They did not report to the general about the change in the project. It happens... Back in 1842, the Austrian artist Leander Russ, living in Cairo, drew the Sphinx from his head. From his own. Because there was no sphinx yet.Admiring. Mind and health! Source:  The Egyptian Nightmare. Part 4. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the Great Pyramids were still under construction Does science know about the creation of ancient monuments in the age of cast iron? Slave labor on construction sites in Egypt The last construction camp on Giza. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the object was discovered, buried and forgotten by scientists. Now it is a wasteland, surrounded by barbed wire. Here , let me remind you, the details of the excavations. * Part of the answer to the title question was given in the last post: years and decades before the arrival of scientists who showed the world the monuments of Egypt, the first archaeologists, authors of scientific descriptions and books, the condition of the monuments was such that not only scientists, but also simply sane people would see the hardening mixture, the through reinforcement, and the true age. Admire, this is a shooting of 1850 and subsequent years. The first archaeologists a priori knew the real technology and age of the monuments, but consciously described the proper canon. The next generation of researchers who studied the monuments at the site also saw signs of the real time of creation, because it is impossible not to see them, and also made a choice: to describe the canon and remain in science. But there was a category of honest scientists - armchair scientists, who study monuments exclusively from sources and descriptions. These honestly believed in the canon and conscientiously described it. There can be no doubt about the scientists-restaurants and scientists-employees of the department for the preservation of historical heritage (in different countries it is called differently). They know perfectly well what exactly they are hiding from the public. But in networks, unlike science, the share of those who know is very small. From the beginning, nets were made as lists of alternatists and tradics, they should not have anything else. Of course, there are sane people who know about the creation of history and historical monuments, but their opinion, as soon as it arises, will immediately drown in the sea of ​​content of the two named candidates. Sometimes there are events that dramatically increase the share of knowledgeable people among the scientific and non-scientific public. In 2015, the clowns of the fanatical terrorist troupe made many people think about their antics in Hatra and Mosul. More than a century earlier, the Karnak Column Disaster had become such an event. When the world's largest columns of the Karnak hypostyle, which had recently been freed from sand, swayed from the duty flood of the Nile and the rise of groundwater, and 11 of them collapsed, many people realized that they could not stand for 3.7 thousand years, and did not stand without sand at all, but were made right in it. The footage below was made at the exact moment when scientists and the creators of history were working together in Karnak to correct the disaster and bring the monument to mind. * In general, even without photos, it is known that in the 16-19 centuries, when there were no cranes capable of lifting blocks of tens and hundreds of tons, as well as at the turn of the 19-20 centuries in places where it is impossible to put a crane, it was possible to put super-weights on top in the only way: with soil. The same dolmen technology, only larger in scale. But the dolmen's weight is smaller in scale than that of great structures like the Karnak Temple, where floor blocks weighing tens and hundreds of tons are raised onto a columnar foundation. They were then set on top with formwork soil. The sand pile was built up along with the column, aligned with the column ends, and the second-level elements, architraves, and flooring were formed on it. A simple, primitive, and untechnocratic method, timeless and applicable to any level of technical equipment. And accordingly, the most important labor force at all mega-monuments of imaginary antiquity is the earth movers. Photograph. 1900. The Temple of Amun. Beloved Karnak. The second and third levels are all formed. Soil removal is underway. The walls are already half-filled with dense soil. For those who recall the fabulous dunes and deserts that buried colossal structures like the Karnak Temple to the top, follow the rails. They go under the formwork soil. That is, first there were the rails, then they were covered with soil, and not the other way around. A primitive crane—a tripod made of logs—is also present. Of course, it can't lift blocks up, but it can move them along the second level, adjusting, shifting, and adjusting them to their proper locations according to the architect's design . The workers of Ancient Egypt, moving megatons of soil—women of various ages, from practically children to old women, each carrying a basket. One man—in the background—keeps an eye on them.  There's no doubt that these are ancient Egyptian convicts, the main labor force on the construction site. Perhaps the young women are serving life sentences somewhere in the penitentiary department. Perhaps they were bought or transferred without any regulations. Perhaps they don't exist at all for any department, and the then British administration of Egypt was told to ignore them. But in reality, they're a powerless workforce, at the complete mercy of the creators' workshop. Similar groups, wearing the same clothes, carrying the same baskets, have been captured on camera since the 1840s when photographing monuments.  Age and race are mixed; there are no men or children with their mothers, and they're all dressed identically. And most importantly, they're engaged in absolutely lousy labor—take more, carry it further. At Abu Simbel, we remember, they even installed pre-dawn lighting so they could begin work before daylight. This workforce costs nothing but rations and the overseer's wages, and can work like this all daylight hours. The foreman decided it was more profitable than bringing in and installing a crane. Or else, driving a crane in and installing it would be impossible and troublesome. Therefore, the lifting work is done, as always, by two-legged laborers, molding the foundations on the ground. The photograph is sad in person, but conceptually amusing. Both the year and the object. It's interesting because a year earlier, groundwater from the Nile flood toppled 11 of the largest Karnak columns and some other flimsy Karnak fortifications (can anyone seriously claim they'd stood for 3,700 years?)), and scientists are officially already restoring them, while in reality they're finishing up the mistakes of the workshop's botched work, blaming the creators primarily for the lack of foundations. The columns will be fully restored in 1902. Meanwhile, the workshop works side by side with official science, completing its construction process—removing the formwork soil. * The water supply system of the great Karnak construction site, passed down unchanged from the Ancient Egypt of historians, novels, and films. It's not hard to guess why a water supply was needed. The world's largest fallen columns had to be erected not just like that, but on a foundation commensurate with their weight. The foundations for the remaining standing columns also had to be built in stages, piece by piece. At Karnak, massive concrete work was underway, the foundations were laid later, and the workshop of the builders provided the water supply. This must be seen in detail!  The raised water flows into a ditch leading toward the temple. Overseers in clean white, one with a stick, oversee the process. Although even without them, it's clear that only those deprived of their freedom are capable of such labor. Free labor. Ancient Egyptian prisoners. Who will talk about the impossibility of great construction projects without tower cranes, electricity, gasoline pumps and pumps?)) Nothing has changed in the century since the previous stages of construction. This is from the report of the Napoleonic Commission, published in full in 1828. For some reason, Egyptologists were only too embarrassed to depict an overseer with a stick... This remarkable photograph from the great ancient Egyptian construction site of the Karnak Temple ruins continues the story of ancient Egyptian slave labor. It turns out there are three of the previously shown ancient Egyptian pumps for water supply to the great construction site. They manually lift water into the ditch leading to the site. No electricity! Apparently, the Egyptians didn't invent it. A small cistern on rails. Some kind of long-term use. It's unlikely this is drinking water for ancient Egyptian prisoners. Drinking water for a construction crew like this needs to be replenished daily, and the tank hasn't been removed in a long time—the rails on the photographer's side are even covered in sand. The prisoners will have to make do with lake water, which is lifted, and this is more likely some kind of thickening agent for the precise "stone-cutting" work. Why not this. Interesting sport. With great traditions))That's how it was with clays, only not in the form of "sports exercises". The main work at the construction sites of Egypt is the movement of soil and components of the molded mixture. When bloggers and readers talk about the incredible volume of monuments and the unthinkable amount of labor, they do not imagine either the real volume of the monuments, which are very modest in comparison with the known objects (in the body of the Aswan Dam, for example, there are 17 volumes of the Pyramid of Cheops, and no one beats the drum: ahh! oh! how is this possible!!), or the possibilities of a two-legged workforce. Even 5 walks per hour for an elderly woman with 7-8 kg in a basket will allow you to carry half a ton per day. And the portions, intensity, and ability to work of the construction contingent were greater. The workforce worked until the resource was fully exhausted, for days, months, years, living under armed supervision in the towns at the facilities. Egyptian burials of many thousands, where there are no ritual accessories, clothes, or jewelry on the bones, are often found in the world news. Their life and being were talked about in a post on the link under the title picture. It remains to add some details that were not included in that post due to its huge volume. Washing and washing in such camps were combined. The young ladies went to the Nile under supervision, splashed around without undressing, wrung out their loose clothes, and went back. In the hot and dry climate of Egypt, when we came to the camp, we were dry and clean. The cycle of testimonies about the Great Pyramids spoke in general terms about nutrition. In some supposedly ancient and early medieval testimonies, the pyramids were allegedly inscribed on how much and what kind of products the pharaoh spent on the builders. In the same type of description, in addition to root crops, onions and garlic were necessarily indicated. A daily clove of garlic, even in the Siberian climate, will protect against colds and diseases caused by aerobic pathogens all winter, and even more so in the Egyptian climate. Prevention and treatment of more serious diseases was carried out with the help of nutrition. If you can't walk and carry sand, don't go, but there will be no food. During the excavations of the Giza camp, scientists found a skeleton in one of the cells. Some were not even taken out and buried, they were left lying down for the edification of others. The Giza camp was created and operated as a temporary one, probably created at the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries, when and the filling and lining of the Pyramid of Menkaure, the height of which was not yet known in the publication of the Report of the Napoleonic Commission of 1824. The camp was filled up in the 1830s, perhaps even by the Perring-Howard Weiss team, who prepared Giza for the opening of wide access to scientists and the public. At huge facilities like the Luxor and Karnak complexes, the camps were long-term. In the pictures, the cells-dwellings are overlapped, from the semblance of roofs protrude surprising tree branches. These are the overlaps. The working force was not forbidden to take some fin from the Nile, dead wood from the coastal groves from the campaigns for washing and washing. Cutting tools were not supposed to cut off the excess, the wood was laid on the walls with branches. They plastered it with a mixture. There are no photographs of the interiors of such dwellings in Egypt, but there is a picture in the Tadmor camp in Palmyra. On the floor there is an elevation - a spaNext to it is a raised platform with the function of a table and a bedside table. In this post, you will find three pictures in a row showing the dynamics of sand removal from the hypostyle hall. The last picture shows a huge heap of small trunks and large branches left after the sand was carried away. What does this mean? At first, the camp stood inside the hall, the bottom of the perimeter columns and other elements was made. Gradually, the columns were built up, the sand level rose, the camp was filled up and reopened outside the hall. Luxor in some of the main buildings, and with it the camp, existed in the 16th-17th centuries, it is on the map of Lucas, who traveled to Nubia twice during this period. It existed until the era of photography, ie the middle of the XIX century. For sure, he participated in the outcast, together with other camps, in the super-intensive, super-Stakhanovite . By the end of its existence, the camp was civilized, acquired a house of the privileged class (and the class of ash stump) and a minaret, which also served as an observation tower. When the scientists finally demolished the camp, the privileged class persuaded them not to touch the house for who knows what carpets, and it comically remained hanging on the ledge of the ceiling, but only until the photographer who immortalized this comedy... The real history of monuments of discovered ancient history can be more interesting than discovered ancient history.  Source: The Egyptian Nightmare. Part 4. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the Great Pyramids were still under construction: gorojanin_iz_b — LiveJournal The Hidden Hand that Shaped History Has the course of History been directed by a small group of people with common interests? The paintings and pictures of the great men of the past centuries reveal a common thread which links them together. Is it a coincidence that many of them hid one of their hands when posing for a portrait Has the course of History been directed by a small group of people with common interests? The paintings and pictures of the great men of the past centuries reveal a common thread which links them together. Is it a coincidence that many of them hid one of their hands when posing for a portrait? It seems unlikely. We'll look at the Masonic origin of the "hidden hand" and the powerful men who used the sign in famous portraits. "Today's thinking toward a democratic world state is neither a new trend nor an accidental circumstance; the work of setting up the background of knowledge necessary to the establishing of enlightened democracy among all nations has been carried on for many hundreds of years by secret societies." -Manly P. Hall, Secret Destiny of America Is there a hidden force behind the world events of the past centuries? Are the fall of European monarchies, the bringing forth of the Age of Enlightenment and our path towards a world democracy part of a great plan lead by a "hidden hand"? Before the advent of mass media, portraits depicting their leaders in majestic poses were the only artifacts people had. Do these portraits have an occult meaning? One of those poses is the "hiding of the hand". I remember my history teacher trying to explain why Napoleon was often shown with a hand inside his shirt. The common explanation went along these lines: "Many theories have been presented as to why Napoleon is traditionally depicted with his hand in his waistcoat. Some of these theories include: he had a stomach ulcer, he was winding his watch, he had an itchy skin disease, in his era it was impolite to put your hands in your pockets, he had breast cancer, he had a deformed hand, he kept a perfumed sachet in his vest that he'd sniff surreptitiously, and that painters don't like to paint hands" -Tom Holmberg Unless all the individuals discussed in this article had a stomach ulcer or deformed hands, the gesture of hiding one's hand simply has to have a specific meaning. It does. Most of the people using this sign are proven (and often enthusiastic) members of the Freemasons. Considering the great importance of this gesture in Masonic rituals and the fact that all of the elite were either part of Freemasonry or knew of it, it is simply impossible that the recurrence of this sign could be the result of a coincidence. The "hidden hand" can, in fact, be found in the rituals of the Royal Arch Degree of Freemasonry and the world leaders that use this sign are subtly saying to other initiates of the order: "This is what I'm part of, this is what I believe in and this is what I'm working for".   The Royal Arch Degree The Triple Tau The Royal Arch Degree (the 13th degree of the Scottish Rite or the 7th degree of the York Rite) is also known as the Mason of the Secret. During this Degree, initiates are said to receive great Masonic truths. "The members of this Degree are denominated companions, and are "entitled to a full explanation of the mysteries of the Order"; whereas in the former Degrees they are recognized by the common, familiar appellation of brothers, and kept in a state of profound ignorance of the sublime secret which is disclosed in this Chapter. This accords with the custom of Pythagoras, who thus distinguished his pupils. After a probation of five years, as stated before, they were admitted into the presence of the preceptor, called his companions, and permitted  to converse with him freely. Previous to the expiration of that term he delivered his instructions to them from behind a screen" -John Fellows, Fellows's Inquiry into the Origin, History, and Purport of Freemasonry "If we pass on to the Royal Arch, we receive a wonderful accession of knowledge, and find every thing made perfect; for this is the nec plus ultra of Masonry, and can never be exceeded by any human institution." -George Oliver, Lectures on Freemasonry It is during this degree that the initiate learns the sacred name of God. "A Degree indescribably more august, sublime, and important than any which precede it, and is, in fact, the summit and perfection of ancient Masonry. It impresses upon our minds a belief in the being of a God, without beginning of days or end of years, the great and incomprehensible Alpha and Omega, and reminds us of the reverence which is due to His Holy NAME." -George Oliver, Historical Landmarks This holy name is Jahbulon, a combination of words meaning "god" in Syriac, Chaldaic, and Egyptian. "JEHOVAH. Of the varieties of this sacred name in use among the different nations of the earth, three particularly merit the attention of Royal Arch Masons: 1. JAH. This name of God is found in the 68th Psalm, v. 4. 2. BAAL OR BEL. This word signifies a lord, master, or possessor, and hence it was applied by many of the nations of the East to denote the Lord of all things, and the Master of the world. 3. ON. This was the name by which JEHOVAH was worshiped among the Egyptians." -Malcolm C. Duncan, Duncan's Masonic Ritual and Monitor The initiation ritual to this degree re-enacts the return to Jerusalem of three Most Excellent Masons who were held captive in Babylon. The following image depicts the hand sign required to go through the second veil, as documented in Duncan's Masonic Ritual and Monitor The hidden hand. "Master of Second Veil: "Three Most Excellent Masters you must have been, or thus far you could not have come; but farther you cannot go without my words, sign, and word of exhortation. My words are Shem, Japhet, and Adoniram; my sign is this: (thrusting his hand in his bosom); it is in imitation of one given by God to Moses, when He commanded him to thrust his hand into his bosom, and, taking it out, it became as leprous as snow. My word of exhortation is explanatory of this sign, and is found in the writings of Moses, viz., fourth chapter of Exodus": "And the Lord said unto Moses, Put now thine hand into thy bosom. And he put his hand into his bosom; and when he took it out, behold, his hand was leprous as snow". -Malcolm C. Duncan, Duncan's Masonic Ritual and Monitor Said to be inspired by Exodus 4:6. In this biblical verse, the heart ("bosom") stands for what we are, the hand for what we do. It can thus be interpreted as: What we are is what we ultimately do. The symbolic significance of this gesture might explain the reason why it is so widely used by famous Masons. The hidden hand lets the other initiates know that the individual depicted is part of this secret Brotherhood and that his actions were inspired by the Masonic philosophy and beliefs. Furthermore, the hand that executes the actions is hidden behind cloth, which can symbolically refer to the covert nature of the Mason's actions. Napoleon, a known Mason in his study at the Tuileries, 1812 Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a military and political leader of France whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century. He was initiated into Army Philadelphia Lodge in 1798. His brothers, Joseph, Lucian, Louis, and Jerome, were also Freemasons. Five of the six members of Napoleon's Grand Counsel of the Empire were Freemasons, as were six of the nine Imperial Officers and 22 of the 30 Marshals of France. Bonaparte's association with Masonry has always been played down in historical records. Masonic researcher J.E.S. Tuckett addresses the situation: "It is strange that evidence in favor of the Great Napoleon's membership of the Masonic Brotherhood has never been examined in detail, for the matter is surely one of interest, and – seeing the remarkable part that remarkable men played in the affairs of Europe, at a time when Continental Freemasonry was struggling out of chaos into regular order – it cannot be without an important bearing upon Masonic history" In his essay on Napoleon and Masonry, Tuckett claims: "There is incontestable evidence that Napoleon was acquainted with the nature, aims and organization of Freemasonry: that he approved of and made use of it to further his own ends" -J.E.S. Tuckett, Napoleon I and Freemasonry (source) Napoleon was also said to be aided by occult powers. In 1813 he was defeated at Leipzip and behind him was a "Cabinet of Curiosities" in which a Prussian officer discovered his Book of Fate and Oraculum. Originally this Oraculum was discovered in one of the Royal tombs of Egypt during a French military expedition of 1801. The emperor ordered the manuscript to be translated by a famous German scholar and antiquarian. From that time onward, the Oraculum was one of Napoleon's most treasured possessions. He consulted it on many occasions and it is said to have "formed a stimulus to his most speculative and most successful enterprises." Hidden hand.   Karl Marx Karl Marx is known today to be the founder of modern Communism. Despite being denied by some Masons, Marx is said to have been a 32nd degree Grand Orient Freemason. Marx became the spokesman of the atheist and socialist movements of Europe. He planned the replacement of monarchies with socialist republics, with the next step conversion to communist republics. George Washington. George Washington George Washington was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and is considered to be the "most important American Mason". Charles Wilson Pealed produced this painting when Washington was 52 years old. Notice the position of Washington's feet: they form an oblong square. The position of the feet is of utmost importance in Masonic symbolism. Compare this with this excerpt from Duncan's Ritual Monitor: Positions.   Mozart. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is considered to be one of the most prolific and influential composers of music ever. He also was a Freemason and was initiated in the Austrian lodge Zur Zur Wohltatigkeit on Dec. 14th, 1784. Mozart's creations often incorporated important Masonic elements. The Magic Flute opera was mainly based on Masonic principles. "The music of the Freemasons contained musical phrases and forms that held specific semiotic meanings. For example, the Masonic initiation ceremony began with the candidate knocking three times at the door to ask admittance. This is expressed musically as a dotted figure: meanings. For example, This figure appears in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute in the overture, suggesting the opening of the Masonic initiation." – Katherine Thompson, The Masonic Thread in Mozart The musical progression of The Magic Flute was based on the Golden Ratio (1,6180…), the proportion of everything that is considered divine by Mystery Schools. Here are compositions created by Mozart for use in Masonic lodges: Lied (song) "Gesellenreise, for use at the installation of new journeymen" Cantata for tenor and male chorus Die Maurerfreude ("The Mason's Joy") The Masonic Funeral Music (Maurerische Trauermusik) Two songs to celebrate the opening of "Zur Neugekrönten Hoffnung" Cantata for tenor and piano, Die ihr die unermesslichen Weltalls Schöpfer ehrt The Little Masonic Cantata (Kleine Freimaurer-Kantate) entitled Laut verkünde unsre Freude, for soloists, male chorus, and orchestra Lafayette. Marquis de Lafayette Marquis de Lafayette was a 33rd degree Freemason. According to Willam R. Denslow's 10,000 Famous Freemasons, Lafayette was a French military officer who was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a leader of the Garde Nationale during the bloody French Revolution. Lafayette was also made an honorary Grand Commander of the Supreme Council of New York. More than 75 Masonic bodies in the U.S. have been named after him, including 39 lodges, 18 chapters, 4 councils, 4 commanderies, and 7 Scottish rite bodies.   Rothschild. Salomon Rothschild Salomon Rothschild was the founder of the Viennese branch of the prominent Mayer Amschel Rothschild family. The most powerful family in the world has greatly influenced the policies of Germany, France, Italy, and Austria. The Rothschilds are also the main players behind the creation of Zionism and the state of Israel. The power of the Rothschilds went way beyond the confines of the Masonic lodge. They are said to be part of the 13 "Illuminati Bloodlines". An analysis of the recently built Supreme Court of Israel (read the article here) confirms the Rothschild's embrace of Masonic symbolism. Bolivar. Simon Bolivar Known as "El Libertador" (the Liberator), Bolivar is considered to be the "George Washington of South America". He joined Freemasonry in Cadiz, Spain, received the Scottish Rite degrees in Paris and was knighted in a Commandery of Knights Templar in France in 1807. Bolivar founded and served as master of Protectora de las Vertudes Lodge No. 1 in Venezuela. The country of Bolivia is named after him. Bolivar also served as the president of Colombia, Peru and Bolivia in the 1820's. He belonged to the Order and Liberty Lodge No. 2 in Peru. Notice in the image above the position of his feet (oblong square) and the checkerboard pattern of the floor, also Masonic. His stance might have been inspired by the Knights of Christian Mark Degree as depicted below in Richardson's Monitor of Freemasonry:   Knights of the Christian Mark.   Joseph Stalin After being shot in 1940, the young man on the right has been edited out by Stalin's people. Hidden hand. Stalin's reign of terror in the Soviet Union lead to the deaths of millions of his own countrymen. He is often shown in pictures using the hidden hand gesture. No official records have been found that prove Stalin's initiation into Masonry. Of course, dictators such as Stalin tightly controlled all information concerning themselves and their affairs, making it difficult to prove anything one way or the other. The hiding of his hand, however,  provides an initiate's clue to his possible allegiance to an occult brotherhood.   Source: The Hidden Hand that Shaped History | Vigilant Citizen Satanic Occult Symbols In Washington D.C. The pentagon is an infinite occult symbol iI is the center of a pentagram and a pentagram fits perfectly inside a pentagon.   Obelisks are erect phallic (penis) symbols related to the Egyptian Sun god, Ra. The four sides of the Washington Monument are aligned with the cardinal directions (i.e., east, west, north, and south). At the ground level, each side of the monument measures 55.5 feet in width, which is equal to 666 inches each side. The height of the obelisk is 555.5 feet, which is equal to 6,666 inches. "The word 'obelisk' literally means 'Baal's Shaft' or Baal's organ of reproduction. This should be especially shocking when we realize that we have a gigantic obelisk in our nation's capital known as the Washington Monument." The Illuminati's push for global governance began in 1775 and became more visible the following year in 1776 during the Revolutionary War. While the 13 colonies broke from Britain, their leadership included high-ranking Freemasons. The mall in Washington DC is laid out so the gardens and streets form the image of an owl. The owl is representative of the mythical goddess, Lilith. The street design in Washington, D.C., has been laid out in such a manner that certain Satanic symbols are depicted by the streets, cul-de-sacs and rotaries. This design was created in 1791, a few years after Freemasonry assumed the leadership of the New World Order, in 1782. George Washington (a 33° Freemason) selected French Freemason Pierre Charles L'Enfant to design the city's layout in Washington D.C. The boundaries of the city, established by George Washington in 1791, form a square 10 miles long on each side, centered on the originally proposed location for the Washington Monument. The east-west diagonal of the square crosses over the Capitol building and the north-south diagonal crosses over the White House. The length of the north-south and east-west diagonals is 10 miles times the square root of 2, or 14.142 miles. This distance converts to 43,455 ancient Egyptian royal cubits, the same figure as the ratio between the Great Pyramid and the dimensions of the earth. The height of the Great Pyramid is 481.13 feet, divided by 5,280 = .0911231 miles. The mean radius of the earth is 3,960 miles, divided by .0911231 = 43,457. The perimeter of the Great Pyramid is 3,023 feet, divided by 5,280 = .5725 miles. The mean circumference of the earth is 24,880 miles, divided by .5725 = 43,458. 3,960 miles (radius of the earth) / 14.142 miles = 280 (number of cubits in the height of the Great Pyramid) 24,880 miles (circumference of the earth) / 14.142 miles = 1,760 (cubits in the perimeter of the Great Pyramid) Converting the radius and circumference of the earth to cubits yields the same results. Draw the pentagram and hexagram symbols together, you can see three sides of a cross. Finishing the symbol on the land sitting in front of the White House reveals a perfectly symmetrical Knights Templar cross. The 4 sides of the Washington Monument are aligned with the cardinal directions (i.e., east, west, north, and south). At the ground level each side of the monument measures 55.5 feet long, which is equal to 666 inches. The height of the obelisk is 555.5 feet, which is equal to 6,666 inches. The obelisk is representative of the male sex organ, worship in nearly all pagan cultures. It is a symbol of man's carnal power and might. Satanism and the occult are saturated with sexual perversion, child-molesting, and human sacrifices. Most worshippers in these groups deny such claims, but some have openly professed it,   Above the dome of the Capitol building stands Lady Libertas, the goddess Isis. Guarding the entrance to the Capitol building is Nimrod (Baal) in the likeness of the Roman god Mars, Egyptians called Osiris. The image below this entrance is identical to that of the Roman Pantheon of the Gods - as well as the Greek Parthenon. The White House. The central part of the Supreme Court building Modeled after the Temple of Artemis, one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world. The George Washington Masonic Memorial Modeled after descriptions of the Pharos of Alexandria - another wonder of the ancient world, Sits across the Potomac in Alexandria, Virginia just inside the diagonal square border of D.C.   Statue of Washington - Smithsonian Museum of American History was modeled after descriptions of the statue of Zeus at Olympia, one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world. The museum is aligned to the cardinal directions; the statue sits at the western end of the main floor facing east. Compare this portrayal of Washington to the images of Zeus and Baphomet   "Historian/author Ralph Epperson has spent many years researching the history of the Great Seal and has discovered that those who designed the two circles committed America to what has been called 'A Secret Destiny.' This future 'destiny' is so unpleasant that those who wanted the changes it entails had to conceal that truth in symbols."   Condoleezza Rice at the United Nations in 2005 with the numbers 666 behind her   A kill box is a military term for a designated area where coordinated attacks against enemy targets are authorized without needing additional permission each time. It's commonly used in modern warfare—especially with air support and artillery—to speed up targeting and reduce confusion between different military units. There are two main types: Blue kill box – aircraft can attack targets in the area.  Purple kill box – both aircraft and surface weapons (like artillery) can engage targets.  The concept became widely known during conflicts such as the Gulf War and Iraq War. Outside the military, "kill box" can also refer to: A deadly trap area in video games or fiction  A confined shooting lane in tactical training  A thriller novel title or entertainment reference How Kill Boxes Work Operationally A kill box is essentially a pre-approved combat zone. Instead of requiring commanders to approve every individual strike, military planners establish a geographic area where enemy forces are expected to be operating. The basic process: Intelligence identifies an area where enemy forces are active.  Commanders define the boundaries of the kill box.  Rules of engagement are established.  Aircraft, drones, artillery, missiles, and other weapons systems can engage authorized targets within that area.  Coordination measures are used to prevent friendly-fire incidents.  The goal is speed. Modern battlefields move quickly, and waiting for approval on every target can allow enemy forces to escape. Kill boxes became especially important during the 1991 Gulf War and later operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, where aircraft, drones, artillery, and ground forces often operated simultaneously over large areas. Legal and Ethical Controversies The military argument is straightforward: Faster response times.  Better coordination.  Greater ability to attack moving targets.  Reduced command bottlenecks.  Critics raise several concerns: Civilian Casualties If intelligence is wrong or outdated, civilians can be present inside a designated kill box. One concern is that pre-authorized engagement areas may encourage rapid strikes before all information is verified. Identification Problems In counterinsurgency conflicts, fighters may not wear uniforms. Distinguishing: civilians  insurgents  local police  allied militias  can be extremely difficult. Accountability Critics argue that when authority is distributed across many units, responsibility for mistakes can become less clear. Questions often arise after civilian deaths: Who approved the kill box?  Who identified the target?  Who launched the strike?  Was the intelligence accurate?  International Humanitarian Law Under the laws of armed conflict, military forces must still follow: distinction (combatants vs. civilians)  proportionality  military necessity  Creating a kill box does not remove these legal obligations. A target inside a kill box is not automatically lawful to attack; forces are still expected to verify that it is a legitimate military objective. Gaming Meaning In video games, a "kill box" usually means something very different. Shooter Games A kill box is often: a choke point  a narrow corridor  a trap area  where players are funneled into concentrated fire. Examples occur in many multiplayer shooters where defenders have a strong advantage. Survival and Strategy Games In games such as Rim World, players intentionally build elaborate kill boxes: maze-like entrances  sandbags  turrets  traps  firing positions  The goal is to force enemies through a controlled route where they can be defeated efficiently. Game Development Developers sometimes use "kill box" to mean an invisible area that instantly kills a character if they fall off the map or leave the intended play space. The phrase tends to sound shocking because of the word "kill," but in military doctrine it is primarily a command-and-control term describing a geographic area where weapons employment has been pre-coordinated. The controversies arise not from the concept itself, but from how it is applied in real-world combat situations where civilians, intelligence errors, and complex battlefields can be involved. Many critics of U.S. foreign policy have expressed similar views, though others strongly disagree. The argument behind that criticism is that since the end of the World War II, the United States has maintained a global military presence, hundreds of overseas bases, extensive intelligence operations, drone programs, and has been involved in numerous conflicts, interventions, and counterterrorism campaigns. Critics argue that this creates a situation where military force can be projected almost anywhere on Earth, making much of the world subject to potential U.S. military action. Supporters of U.S. military policy typically make a different argument. They contend that the global presence helps deter rival powers, protects trade routes, supports allies, combats terrorist organizations, and contributes to international stability. Whether one sees the result as: global security,  global policing,  empire,  hegemony,  deterrence,  or a "worldwide kill box"  depends heavily on one's political, historical, and ethical perspective. From a strictly military standpoint, a "kill box" is a specific battlefield tool with defined geographic boundaries. Using it as a description of the entire world is metaphorical—a way of expressing concern that modern surveillance, drones, missiles, special operations forces, and global military reach have made almost any location potentially accessible to military force. Whether that metaphor is persuasive depends on how one interprets the role and consequences of U.S. power in the world. The Hiroshima Myth Every year during the first two weeks of August the mass news media and many politicians at the national level trot out the "patriotic" political myth that the dropping of the two atomic bombs on Japan in August of 1945 caused them to surrender, and thereby saved the lives of anywhere from five hundred thousand to 1 million American soldiers, who did not have to invade the islands. Opinion polls over the last fifty years show that American citizens overwhelmingly (between 80 and 90 percent) believe this false history which, of course, makes them feel better about killing hundreds of thousands of Japanese civilians (mostly women and children) and saving American lives to accomplish the ending of the war. The best book, in my opinion, to explode this myth is The Decision to Use the Bomb by Gar Alperovitz, because it not only explains the real reasons the bombs were dropped, but also gives a detailed history of how and why the myth was created that this slaughter of innocent civilians was justified, and therefore morally acceptable. The essential problem starts with President Franklin Roosevelt's policy of unconditional surrender, which was reluctantly adopted by Churchill and Stalin, and which President Truman decided to adopt when he succeeded Roosevelt in April of 1945. Hanson Baldwin was the principal writer for the New York Times who covered World War II and he wrote an important book immediately after the war entitled Great Mistakes of the War. Baldwin concludes that the unconditional surrender policy was perhaps the biggest political mistake of the war….Unconditional surrender was an open invitation to unconditional resistance; it discouraged opposition to Hitler, probably lengthened the war, cost us lives, and helped to lead to the present aborted peace. The stark fact is that the Japanese leaders, both military and civilian, including the emperor, were willing to surrender in May of 1945 if the emperor could remain in place and not be subjected to a war crimes trial after the war. This fact became known to President Truman as early as May of 1945. The Japanese monarchy was one of the oldest in all of history, dating back to 660 BC. The Japanese religion added the belief that all the emperors were the direct descendants of the sun goddess, Amaterasu. The reigning Emperor Hirohito was the 124th in the direct line of descent. After the bombs were dropped on August 6 and 9 of 1945, and their surrender soon thereafter, the Japanese were allowed to keep their emperor on the throne and he was not subjected to any war crimes trial. The emperor, Hirohito, came on the throne in 1926 and continued in his position until his death in 1989. Since President Truman, in effect, accepted the conditional surrender offered by the Japanese as early as May of 1945, the question is posed, "Why then were the bombs dropped?" The author Alperovitz gives us the answer in great detail which can only be summarized here, but he states, We have noted a series of Japanese peace feelers in Switzerland which OSS Chief William Donovan reported to Truman in May and June [1945]. These suggested, even at this point, that the U.S. demand for unconditional surrender might well be the only serious obstacle to peace. At the center of the explorations, as we also saw, was Allen Dulles, chief of OSS [Office of Strategic Services] operations in Switzerland (and subsequently Director of the CIA). In his 1966 book The Secret Surrender, Dulles recalled that "On July 20, 1945, under instructions from Washington, I went to the Potsdam Conference and reported there to Secretary [of War] Stimson on what I had learned from Tokyo — they desired to surrender if they could retain the Emperor and their constitution as a basis for maintaining discipline and order in Japan after the devastating news of surrender became known to the Japanese people." It is documented by Alperovitz that Stimson reported this directly to Truman. Alperovitz further points out in detail the documentary proof that every top presidential civilian and military advisor, with the exception of James Byrnes, along with Prime Minister Churchill and his top British military leadership, urged Truman to revise the unconditional surrender policy so as to allow the Japanese to surrender and keep their emperor. All this advice was given to Truman prior to the Potsdam Proclamation which occurred on July 26, 1945. This proclamation made a final demand upon Japan to surrender unconditionally or suffer drastic consequences. Another startling fact about the military connection to the dropping of the bomb is the lack of knowledge on the part of General MacArthur about the existence of the bomb and whether it was to be dropped. Alperovitz states, MacArthur knew nothing about advance planning for the atomic bomb's use until almost the last minute. Nor was he personally in the chain of command in this connection; the order came straight from Washington. Indeed, the War Department waited until five days before the bombing of Hiroshima even to notify MacArthur — the commanding general of the U.S. Army Forces in the Pacific — of the existence of the atomic bomb. Alperovitz makes it very clear that the main person Truman was listening to while he ignored all of this civilian and military advice was James Byrnes, the man who virtually controlled Truman at the beginning of his administration. Byrnes was one of the most experienced political figures in Washington, having served for over thirty years in both the House and the Senate. He had also served as a United States Supreme Court Justice, and at the request of President Roosevelt, he resigned that position and accepted the role in the Roosevelt administration of managing the domestic economy. Byrnes went to the Yalta Conference with Roosevelt and then was given the responsibility to get Congress and the American people to accept the agreements made at Yalta. When Truman became a senator in 1935, Byrnes immediately became his friend and mentor and remained close to Truman until Truman became president. Truman never forgot this and immediately called on Byrnes to be his number-two man in the new administration. Byrnes had expected to be named the vice presidential candidate [to FDR] to replace [Henry A.] Wallace and had been disappointed when Truman had been named, yet he and Truman remained very close. Byrnes had also been very close to Roosevelt, while Truman was kept in the dark by Roosevelt most of the time he served as vice president. Truman asked Byrnes immediately, in April, to become his secretary of state but they delayed the official appointment until July 3, 1945, so as not to offend the incumbent.  Byrnes had also accepted a position on the interim committee which had control over the policy regarding the atom bomb, and therefore, in April 1945 became Truman's main foreign policy advisor, and especially the advisor on the use of the atomic bomb. It was Byrnes who encouraged Truman to postpone the Potsdam Conference and his meeting with Stalin until they could know, at the conference, if the atomic bomb was successfully tested. While at the Potsdam Conference the experiments proved successful and Truman advised Stalin that a new massively destructive weapon was now available to America, which Byrnes hoped would make Stalin back off from any excessive demands or activity in the postwar period. Truman secretly gave the orders on July 25, 1945, that the bombs would be dropped in August while he was to be en route back to America. On July 26, he issued the Potsdam Proclamation, or ultimatum, to Japan to surrender, leaving in place the unconditional surrender policy, thereby causing both Truman and Byrnes to believe that the terms would not be accepted by Japan. The conclusion drawn unmistakably from the evidence presented is that Byrnes is the man who convinced Truman to keep the unconditional surrender policy and not accept Japan's surrender so that the bombs could actually be dropped, thereby demonstrating to the Russians that America had a new forceful leader in place, a "new sheriff in Dodge" who, unlike Roosevelt, was going to be tough with the Russians on foreign policy and that the Russians needed to "back off" during what would become known as the "Cold War." A secondary reason was that Congress would now be told about why they had made the secret appropriation to a Manhattan Project and the huge expenditure would be justified by showing that not only did the bombs work but that they would bring the war to an end, make the Russians back off, and enable America to become the most powerful military force in the world. If the surrender by the Japanese had been accepted between May and the end of July of 1945 and the emperor had been left in place, as in fact he was after the bombing, this would have kept Russia out of the war. Russia agreed at Yalta to come into the Japanese war three months after Germany surrendered. In fact, Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, and Russia announced on August 8, (exactly three months thereafter) that it was abandoning its neutrality policy with Japan and entering the war. Russia's entry into the war for six days allowed them to gain tremendous power and influence in China, Korea, and other key areas of Asia. The Japanese were deathly afraid of communism and if the Potsdam Proclamation had indicated that America would accept the conditional surrender allowing the emperor to remain in place and informed the Japanese that Russia would enter the war if they did not surrender, then this would surely have assured a quick Japanese surrender. The second question that Alperovitz answers in the last half of the book is how and why the Hiroshima myth was created. The story of the myth begins with the person of James B. Conant, the president of Harvard University, who was a prominent scientist, having initially made his mark as a chemist working on poison gas during World War I. During World War II, he was chairman of the National Defense Research Committee from the summer of 1941 until the end of the war and he was one of the central figures overseeing the Manhattan Project. Conant became concerned about his future academic career, as well as his positions in private industry, because various people began to speak out concerning why the bombs were dropped. On September 9, 1945, Admiral William F. Halsey, commander of the Third Fleet, was publically quoted extensively as stating that the atomic bomb was used because the scientists had a "toy and they wanted to try it out." He further stated, "The first atomic bomb was an unnecessary experiment….It was a mistake to ever drop it." Albert Einstein, one of the world's foremost scientists, who was also an important person connected with the development of the atomic bomb, responded and his words were headlined in the New York Times: "Einstein Deplores Use of Atom Bomb." The story reported that Einstein stated that "A great majority of scientists were opposed to the sudden employment of the atom bomb." In Einstein's judgment, the dropping of the bomb was a political-diplomatic decision rather than a military or scientific decision. Probably the person closest to Truman, from the military standpoint, was Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral William Leahy, and there was much talk that he also deplored the use of the bomb and had strongly advised Truman not to use it, but advised rather to revise the unconditional surrender policy so that the Japanese could surrender and keep the emperor. Leahy's views were later reported by Hanson Baldwin in an interview that Leahy "thought the business of recognizing the continuation of the Emperor was a detail which should have been solved easily." Leahy's secretary, Dorothy Ringquist, reported that Leahy told her on the day the Hiroshima bomb was dropped, "Dorothy, we will regret this day. The United States will suffer, for war is not to be waged on women and children." Another important naval voice, the commander in chief of the US Fleet and chief of naval operations, Ernest J. King, stated that the naval blockade and prior bombing of Japan in March of 1945 had rendered the Japanese helpless and that the use of the atomic bomb was both unnecessary and immoral. Also, the opinion of Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, given in a press conference on September 22, 1945, was reported as: "The Admiral took the opportunity of adding his voice to those insisting that Japan had been defeated before the atomic bombing and Russia's entry into the war." In a subsequent speech at the Washington Monument on October 5, 1945, Admiral Nimitz stated, "The Japanese had, in fact, already sued for peace before the atomic age was announced to the world with the destruction of Hiroshima and before the Russian entry into the war." It was learned also that on or about July 20, 1945, General Eisenhower had urged Truman, in a personal visit, not to use the atomic bomb. Eisenhower's assessment was, "It wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing….[T]o use the atomic bomb, to kill and terrorize civilians, without even attempting [negotiations], was a double crime." Eisenhower also stated that it wasn't necessary for Truman to "succumb" to Byrnes. James Conant came to the conclusion that some important person in the administration must go public to show that the dropping of the bombs was a military necessity, thereby saving the lives of hundreds of thousands of American soldiers, so he approached Harvey Bundy and his son, McGeorge Bundy. It was agreed by them that the most important person to create this myth was Secretary of War Henry Stimson. It was decided that Stimson would write a long article to be widely circulated in a prominent national magazine. This article was revised repeatedly by McGeorge Bundy and Conant before it was published in Harper'sMagazine in February of 1947. The long article became the subject of a front-page article and editorial in the New York Times, and in the editorial it was stated, "There can be no doubt that the president and Mr. Stimson are right when they mention that the bomb caused the Japanese to surrender." Later, in 1959, President Truman specifically endorsed this conclusion, including the idea that it saved the lives of a million American soldiers. This myth has been renewed annually by the news media and various political leaders ever since. It is very pertinent that in the memoir of Henry Stimson entitled On Active Service in Peace and War,he states, "Unfortunately, I have lived long enough to know that history is often not what actually happened but what is recorded as such." To bring this matter more into focus from the human tragedy standpoint, I recommend the reading of a book entitled Hiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Physician, August 6–September 30, 1945, by Michiko Hachiya. He was a survivor of Hiroshima and kept a daily diary about the women, children, and old men that he treated on a daily basis in the hospital. The doctor was badly injured himself but recovered enough to help others and his account of the personal tragedies of innocent civilians who were either badly burned or died as a result of the bombing puts the moral issue into a clear perspective for all of us to consider. Now that we live in the nuclear age and there are enough nuclear weapons spread around the world to destroy civilization, we need to face the fact that America is the only country to have used this awful weapon and that it was unnecessary to have done so. If Americans would come to recognize the truth, rather than the myth, it might cause such a moral revolt that we would take the lead throughout the world in realizing that wars in the future may well become nuclear and therefore all wars must be avoided at almost any cost. Hopefully, our knowledge of science has not outrun our ability to exercise prudent and humane moral and political judgment to the extent that we are destined for extermination.  Source: The Hiroshima Myth | Mises Institute Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part I by Dave McGowan | Jan 24, 2014 In just a little over a year – in what will be an historic 150-year anniversary – the American people, and likely people all around the world, will come together in remembrance of the man who was once rather preposterously described by a biographer as "the most gentle, most magnanimous, most Christ-like ruler of all time." That man, of course, was Abraham Lincoln, allegedly the 16th and most beloved President of these United States.   I say "allegedly" here because it is hard to see how someone could be the president of an entity that didn't actually exist. And the reality is that during Lincoln's tenure, there was no such thing as the "United" States. There were Northern states presided over by Washington, and there were Confederate states presided over by a parallel government in Richmond, but there certainly weren't any "united" states. Wouldn't it then be just as accurate to describe Jefferson Davis as the 16th president of the United States? Just checking.   I also say "allegedly" here because Lincoln was most certainly not, during his lifetime, a beloved man. He was thoroughly despised throughout half the country, and wasn't even all that popular in the north. He received merely 40% of the popular vote in 1860 and could have, as more honest historians have noted, been very easily defeated had the Democratic Party bothered to field a viable candidate. But Lincoln was clearly the anointed one.   As we all know, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by famed actor and Southern sympathizer John Wilkes Booth on the evening of April 14, 1865 (which happened to be Good Friday) while attending a play at Ford's Theater in Washington, DC. Just five days earlier, General Robert E. Lee had surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox, effectively signaling an end to the unfathomably bloody US Civil War. What is less widely known is that the assassination of Lincoln was allegedly part of a larger plot that was to have included the simultaneous assassinations of General Grant, Vice President Andrew Johnson, Secretary of State William Seward and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.    John Wilkes Booth, in a Masonic pose This alleged plot, which is part of the official history of the Lincoln assassination, obviously involved people other than John Wilkes Booth. Nine of those people faced trial as co-conspirators, eight by military tribunal (Mary Surrat, David Herold, George Atzerodt, Dr. Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, Michael O'Laughlen, Edward Spangler, and Lewis Paine [or Lewis Payne, or Lewis Powell, depending upon who is telling the tale]), and one who later stood trial alone (John Surrat). Four were executed, three received life sentences, one was given a six-year prison term, and one was acquitted. As for Booth, he was captured and gunned down at Garrett's barn on April 26, 1865 and so never made it to trial.   And that, in a nutshell, is the official narrative of the Lincoln assassination. It is an unusual narrative, to be sure, because it explicitly acknowledges a 'conspiracy' surrounding the death of a president. Of course, many of the details are usually left out when the story is told, leading many to think of John Wilkes Booth as just another 'lone nut' assassin. But Booth was hardly a lone nut and there was in fact a conspiracy at the heart of the Lincoln assassination, though the people targeted by the government weren't the real conspirators; the real conspirators were the very people who orchestrated the witch hunt against the scapegoats.   But before we get to that, let's first skip ahead and look at some of the forgotten aftermath of the assassination, because there is always much to be learned by examining the fates that befall those involved to varying degrees in political conspiracies, especially those unfortunate souls whose names are largely consigned to the dustbins of history.   Let's begin with Sergeant Thomas "Boston" Corbett, the Jack Ruby of the Lincoln assassination. Corbett was a strange character if ever there was one. How strange, you ask? Strange enough to have reportedly castrated himself circa 1858, and to have then opted not to seek medical attention until he had tended to other, apparently more important, business. He was widely considered to be mentally unbalanced, shockingly enough, and he often spoke of hearing disembodied voices. He was mockingly referred to by his fellow soldiers as "the Glory to God man" due to his rather unorthodox religious beliefs, which he wasn't shy about sharing.  Thomas "Boston" Corbett   Due to his bizarre behavior and his unwillingness, or inability, to follow orders, Corbett had been court-martialed and discharged from the service. For some unexplained reason though, he was allowed to re-enlist in 1863 and he quickly thereafter rose to the rank of sergeant. In April 1865, he was assigned to the elite team that captured Booth and, in defiance of direct orders, he personally shot and killed the man who was said to be Booth. Corbett was never reprimanded or disciplined for his actions and in fact profited handsomely by touring the country for years as "The Man Who Killed Booth."   In 1887, Corbett was appointed as the clerk/doorman of the Kansas state legislature. Things didn't go so well for him after that. According to some reports, one day he just decided to shoot the place up, though other accounts hold that he didn't fire his weapon but merely brandished it and issued threats. Whatever the case, he quickly found himself committed to a mental asylum. He managed to escape soon enough though and may have briefly surfaced in Texas before never being seen or heard from again.   Let's next turn our attention to Major Henry Rathbone and Clara Harris, the couple who were sharing the presidential box at Ford's Theater with Abe and Mary Lincoln. At the time, Rathbone was dating Harris, who was both Rathbone's stepsister and the daughter of US Senator Ira Harris. Rathbone was reportedly deeply cut when he attempted to disarm and detain Booth, who escaped by leaping over the railing and onto the stage.      Clara Harris     Major Henry Rathbone   Rathbone later married Harris and the two started a family and moved to Germany, where Rathbone served as the US Consul to Hanover. Things didn't work out so well though for the Rathbones; in December 1883, Henry tried to kill his children and, when thwarted in that effort, instead shot and brutally carved up wife Clara, before turning the knife on himself. Like Corbett, he was sent off to an asylum, but unlike Corbett, Henry Rathbone spent the rest of his life there.   Since I mentioned Mary Todd Lincoln just a couple paragraphs ago, I should probably mention that she also ended up in an insane asylum. Always a bit on the crazy side, Mary became considerably crazier after the assassination, exhibiting increasingly erratic behavior and suffering from vivid hallucinations. She was ultimately committed by her own son, Robert Todd Lincoln.        Mary Todd Lincoln   To say that Robert Lincoln had some rather unusual aspects to his life story would be quite an understatement. To begin with, we could note that he had the distinction of being the only man in history with direct links to three presidential assassinations. Just twenty-one when his father was gunned down, he subsequently was present at the assassinations of James Garfield in 1881 and William McKinley in 1901. He was also the only Lincoln son to survive his childhood; brother Eddie died at age 3 in 1850, brother Willie at age 11 in 1862, and brother Tad barely made it to age 18 before dying in 1871.   According to Robert Lincoln's own account, he was involved in a truly bizarre incident in late 1864/early 1865, not long before the death of his father. The younger Lincoln was saved from serious injury and possible death when he was pulled to safety by a stranger during a mishap on a train platform. That stranger just happened to be Edwin Booth, an older brother of John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln later maintained a long-term friendship and possible romance with Lucy Hale, the daughter of US Senator John Hale and a former paramour and fiancé of John Wilkes Booth. Small world, I guess.  Robert Todd Lincoln   Speaking of Edwin Booth, on June 9, 1893, just as his casket was being carried for burial (he had died two days earlier), Ford's Theater mysteriously collapsed, killing 22 people and injuring another 68. The building had been converted into a government record storage facility and some of the records of the assassination were lost in the wreckage. Shit happens.   Edwin and John's sister, Rosalie Booth, died under mysterious circumstances in January 1880; rumors at the time spoke of a "mysterious assailant." Edwin Booth Clark, a son of sister Asia Booth and therefore a nephew of John Wilkes Booth, attended Annapolis and became a US Naval officer, but he thereafter disappeared at sea. Officially, he committed suicide by jumping overboard. And Junius Brutus Booth, the patriarch of the Booth clan, is said to have gone insane.        The Booth siblings – John Wilkes, Edwin and Junius, Jr.   US Senator Preston King, credited with being one of the guys who supposedly prevented a mercy petition on behalf of Mary Surrat from reaching President Andrew Johnson, decided on November 12, 1865 to go swimming in New York with a bag of bullets tied around his neck. Officially, his death was a very innovative suicide. US Senator James Lane, the other guy credited with supposedly preventing the mercy petition on behalf of Surrat from reaching Johnson, shot himself in the head while jumping from a carriage in Leavenworth, Kansas on July 1, 1866. Or else he slit his own throat. Whichever sounds better to you.     Senator Preston King    Senator James Lane   US Senator John Conness, a likely conspirator and a pallbearer at Lincoln's funeral, was committed to an insane asylum, where he later died. There was a lot of that sort of thing going around in those days. The body of William Peterson – the owner of the boardinghouse where Lincoln was taken immediately after being shot, and where he died the next morning – was found on the grounds of the Smithsonian loaded with the drug laudanum. His death, needless to say, was ruled a suicide.        Senator John Conness   Colonel William Browning, who was Vice President Andrew Johnson's personal secretary as well as being a personal friend to John Wilkes Booth (Browning claimed that Johnson was close to Booth as well), is believed to have been murdered, though details are sketchy. Less sketchy were the murders of Frank Boyle and William Watson, both of whom had the misfortune of physically resembling John Wilkes Booth. Both of their bodies were turned over to the War Department by overzealous vigilantes for the reward that was being offered. Stanton's department covered up the murders by unceremoniously disposing of the bodies, one of which was dumped into the Potomac River.   Frances Adeline Seward and Frances Adeline "Fanny" Seward had the misfortune of bearing witness to the staged attack on William Seward, sitting Secretary of State and the husband of Frances and the father of Fanny. Frances died of a reported heart attack on June 21, 1865, the summer solstice, just two months after the assassination of Lincoln and the alleged attempt on her husband's life. Fanny died the next year, on October 29, 1866, just before Halloween. She was just twenty-one; the cause of her death remains unknown. A few years later, in 1870, William Seward legally 'adopted' his young 'companion,' Olive Risley, as his 'daughter.' Risley was 26 at the time and Seward was 69.    William Seward, in a Masonic pose, with daughter Fanny   Lafayette Baker was undoubtedly one of the central conspirators involved in the Lincoln assassination. As 'Honest' Abe's spymaster and head of the NDP, forerunner of the US Secret Service, Baker had instituted a reign of terror, just as he had previously done as a member of San Francisco's Vigilance Committee, running roughshod over the US Constitution. Under Baker's (and Stanton's) tyrannical watch, there were 260,000 dubious arrests made and some 38,000 people held without trial as political prisoners. Baker also introduced such innovations as midnight raids, forced entry without warrants, imprisonment without bail, and summary arrests.   Circa 1867, Baker published a book revealing the existence of what was said to be Booth's suppressed diary. He subsequently barricaded himself in his home and told friends that a secret cabal was intent on killing him. Press reports from December 1867 through February 1868 tell of repeated attempts made on his life; he was shot at twice, stabbed on his own front porch, and beaten by three or four men who attempted to abduct him. Nevertheless, when he turned up dead on July 3, 1868, the cause of death was said to be meningitis, necessitating an immediate, sealed burial. A later exhumation though indicated that the cause of death was actually arsenic poisoning. Baker left behind cryptic notes alluding to a conspiracy behind the Lincolnassassination involving eleven members of Congress, twelve US Army officers, three US Navy officers, one governor, five bankers, three nationally known newspapermen, and eleven wealthy industrialists.  Lafayette Baker   Police officer John F. Parker had the dubious distinction of being the guy who was supposed to be guarding Lincoln at the time of the assassination, except that he instead opted to wander over next door to get good and drunk. Parker had a seriously checkered history with the department, having been written up on multiple occasions for conduct unbecoming an officer, the use of insolent language, visiting a house of prostitution, inappropriately discharging his weapon, sleeping on duty, and being drunk on duty. He was nevertheless assigned the task of guarding the president, a development that historians have been unable to explain. And he was assigned that task just in time to be neglecting his duties when Lincoln was shot.   Parker was never reprimanded in any way for abandoning his post and leaving the president vulnerable. In fact, he was returned to duty at the White House, an honor usually reserved for senior officers with unblemished records. He was released from duty though in 1868, just after Stanton relinquished his post as Secretary of War. Parker was never seen or heard from again, and it is believed that he was either killed or went into hiding to avoid being killed.   Next up is Edwin Stanton, Lincoln's Secretary of War and a seriously deranged individual. Prior to his emergence on the national scene, Stanton's greatest claim-to-fame was securing an acquittal for US Representative Daniel Sickles on murder charges. On February 27, 1859, Sickles had gunned down the unarmed Philip Barton Key II, US Attorney for the District of Columbia and the son of famed composer Francis Scott Key. Stanton argued a temporary insanity defense for the first time in US history.  Edwin Stanton   The media, apparently every bit as corrupt in those days as it is today, overwhelmingly supported Sickles while vilifying both Key and Sickles' wife, who had reportedly been having an affair. Though standing trial for a capital offense, Sickles was allowed to stay in his jailer's apartment, have unlimited visitors, and, most amazingly, retain his weapon. As already stated, Sickles was acquitted and was subsequently allowed to retain his seat in the House of Representatives. He later became a Civil War general and the US Minister to Spain.   Elsewhere in Stanton's biography, we find that at various times in his life he personally ordered the exhumation of at least two bodies, one of them being his daughter Lucy, who was dug up circa 1842. According to reports, Stanton kept his daughter's decomposing corpse in a special container in his home for at least a year. Nothing there that would cause anyone to question his fitness to serve as Secretary of War.   Stanton became a national figure when he was appointed by President Buchanan to serve as Attorney General on December 20, 1860, just weeks before Lincoln took office. He went on to wield considerable power in both the Lincoln and Johnson Administrations. Indeed, Johnson's attempted dismissal of Stanton lead directly to the impeachment proceedings begun against him. Stanton's reign came to an end though on December 24, 1869, when he turned up dead of unstated causes (though some reports allude to suicide, just as his brother had reportedly done in 1846). He had been nominated for a seat on the US Supreme Court by President Grant and confirmed by the US Senate, but he died before he could take that seat.   That is a whole lot of tragedy to befall a lot of people who were in a position to know more about the Lincoln assassination than they should have. There was though at least one guy who saw his fortunes rise. Major General Lew Wallace was a member of the hopelessly corrupt military tribunal that sat in judgment of Mary Surrat and others. In 1880, he became far better known as a writer of historical fiction when he wrote and published Ben Hur, the best-selling novel of the nineteenth century. Well over a hundred years later, it is still in print.      Lew Wallace Source:  Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part I | The Center for an Informed America Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part II by Dave McGowan | Feb 9, 2014 I know what you must be thinking here: "How the hell could you leave Francis Tumblety out of the previous post? Compared to him, guys like Boston Corbett, Henry Rathbone and Edwin Stanton seem perfectly sane. And whose name was in the news in a weirder way in the years following the assassination than the esteemed Dr. Francis Tumblety? And in addition, doesn't he deserve honorable mention for the ridiculous facial hair alone?"   I can't really argue much with any of that. I think it was probably a subconscious omission so that I would have something really good to start this post with. Because as stories go, the Francis Tumblety story is pretty damn good. And seriously strange. But before getting to that, I must also quickly add Father Wiget to the list. Not much can be dug up on him other than that he was assigned as Mary Surrat's spiritual adviser during the brief period that she sat in her cell waiting to be executed, and he died shortly thereafter.   Moving on now to the man of the hour, Francis Tumblety was arrested on May 5, 1865, on suspicion of being complicit in the plot to assassinate Abraham Lincoln. Tumblety was an associate of – and by some reports a sometime employer of – executed conspirator David Herold. His arrest was ordered by Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. To be fair to Tumblety though, it should be noted that he was only one of some 2,000 people who were arrested as possible conspirators. That's how things work in a democracy, you see – falsely imprison first, ask questions later.     The esteemed Dr. Francis Tumblety   In any event, Tumblety was held for nearly a month before being released on May 30, 1865. Prior to his arrest, he had lived a very colorful life. Born circa 1833 and raised in New York, Tumblety was widely viewed as a charlatan and a kook. While still a minor, he reportedly peddled pornographic materials. He soon transformed into a quack "Indian herb doctor" who was run out of various parts of the country for running cons. In one reported case, he was directly involved in the death of a 'patient,' though he suffered no repercussions for his actions. According to one account, he kept a collection of human uteruses on display in his Washington, DC home.   Some twenty-three years after his arrest in Washington, Tumblety took up lodging in, of all places, a boardinghouse in London's Whitechapel district. He was identified at that time, and has been identified by various researchers since that time, as being a prime suspect in the still unsolved Jack the Ripper murders. Following an arrest on November 7, 1888 for "gross indecency," Tumblety fled the country on November 20 under an assumed name and quickly made his way back to the US, where he died some five years later.   What are the odds, one wonders, that the very same guy would be suspected of involvement in two such completely different and seemingly unconnected crimes? Two crimes separated by a vast ocean and the passage of nearly two-and-a-half decades? Probably about the same odds that a guy like John Phillips would have connections to both the Black Dahlia murder and the Manson bloodbath.   *******************************************************   Pictured below is the single-shot derringer that, according to the legend we all know so well, John Wilkes Booth used to assassinate President Abraham Lincoln. One of the most iconic pieces of historical memorabilia that this country has to offer, it has been displayed for decades, viewed by millions, and written about by thousands. But after the passage of 149 years, it doesn't appear that anyone has ever thought to question why Booth, an intelligent and educated man by all accounts, would choose such a ridiculous weapon to take with him on his mission. Let's imagine that it is the evening of April 14, 1865, and you are John Wilkes Booth. Your mission is to assassinate the president. In a crowded theater. In the middle of Washington, which, at the time, is heavily fortified and militarized. Because there is, you know, a war going on. And the enemy's base of operations – in Richmond, Virginia – is only 100 miles away. So the nation's capital is crawling with armed military personnel, armed police patrols, and armed thugs in the employ of Baker and Stanton.   Your mission then is not going to be an easy one. The president is under armed guard, or at least he's supposed to be. He's also supposed to be in the company of General Ulysses S. Grant, who is known to always be armed. Of course, Grant has fortuitously opted to get the hell out of Dodge just hours before he was to have accompanied the Lincolns to the theater, but you shouldn't have any way of knowing that, just as you shouldn't have any way of knowing that Parker will desert his post. And there will be no shortage of other armed personnel in Ford's Theater, including Army Captain Theodore McGowan (no relation), who is seated very near the door to Lincoln's box seats.   So you have to assume that you're going to have to get past at least two armed attendants, and probably more, to get to the president. And you're going to have to do that without firing a shot, since you only have one and you will need to save that for Abe. And since the only realistic chance you have of actually killing Lincoln with your wildly inaccurate weapon is by sneaking up behind him and delivering a contact wound to his head, you're going to have to get past any guards without making any noise. And since Grant is supposedly also on the hit list, you're going to have to kill him as well, which I guess you'll have to do by bludgeoning him with your empty gun. That should work out pretty well.     Ford's Theater, circa 1865   You're not on a suicide mission, by the way, so even if you somehow manage to successfully assassinate the president, and presumably General Grant as well, you're still going to have some major problems on your hands. First of all, you're going to have to make your escape from a theater full of people, many of them armed. Because in April 1865, the beginning of the era that will be mythologized as the 'Wild West' days, there are guns everywhere and everyone is packing heat. And you, of course, will have blown your wad and will be unarmed.   If you somehow manage to make your way out of the theater, then you will face the daunting prospect of making your way out of the city and across the Potomac. And as I may have mentioned, DC is swarming with armed soldiers, armed spies and armed police, as well as armed citizens. And your only means of defending yourself will be with a dagger, which probably isn't going to be very effective.   Your goal is to reach the Navy Yard Bridge, which will get you across the Potomac and to relative safety. But even if you reach it, you've still got a big hurdle to overcome: the bridge has a strict curfew and the armed guard is under standing orders not to allow anyone to cross without explicit authorization. If you attempt to cross without anyway, you will be shot. A gun might come in handy, but you won't have one.     The Navy Yard Bridge, John Wilkes Booth's passage out of town   To recap then, you have set a very ambitious goal for yourself. You must first get to the president, who is sitting in a private box in a crowded theater with at least two armed attendants. You must then kill the president with a single shot, because your weapon doesn't allow for second chances, and also somehow kill General Grant. You must then, in an unarmed state, make an escape first from the theater and then from the city, and you must get past an armed guard at the bridge. And you have to do all of that with just one bullet. It's hard to see how anything could go wrong with such a brilliant plan.   Of course, it doesn't have to be this way. There are other weapons available. Weapons better suited to your mission. And as an alleged Southern operative, you should surely know that. It was, after all, Confederate guerilla groups that pioneered the shock-and-awe tactic of using overwhelming force in the form of multiple revolvers. We've all seen images of Wild West gunslingers riding hard with their reins in their teeth, six-shooters blazing in both hands. It's only natural to dismiss such images as a hackneyed Hollywood creation. But strangely enough, it's actually not. Rebel groups like Mosby's Rangers and Quantrill's Raiders really did train to do exactly that. And they wore custom-made holsters that could hold as many as six revolvers, three on each side. That allowed them to get off as many as 36 shots before their overwhelmed Union adversaries, armed with muskets, could reload and get off so much as a second shot.   Those semi-mythical figures in American history that we know as Frank and Jesse James, and Jim, Bob, John and Cole Younger, and Bill, Grat, Bob and Emmett Dalton, learned the skills they later employed as Wild West 'outlaws' while riding with the likes of William Quantrill and "Bloody Bill" Anderson. But that's not really the point here – the point here is that revolvers are easy to come by and might serve you better than a nearly-worthless single-shot derringer. And according to the official story, you definitely have access to at least two of them (pictured below). There are other things you might want to consider as well, such as not committing the crime as John Wilkes Booth. You are, after all, a famous stage actor, which means that you are also a wardrobe and makeup guy. Because in your era, you and your contemporaries have to handle those duties yourselves, so you travel with a couple large trunks full of stuff like wigs and fake beards. You could easily don a convincing disguise so as not to be easily recognized. Then you don't have to worry about getting out of the city alive; all you have to do is make it out of the theater, quickly ditch the disguise, and then you can circle around and rejoin the crowd at Ford's without arousing any suspicion at all.   And you do, after all, have a lot at stake. Even if you manage to make an escape from DC, your lifestyle and career will be distant memories. All the fame, all the female adoration, all the success, all the wealth … it will all be gone if you commit the crime as John Wilkes Booth. So you might want to put on a disguise. And replace that derringer with a revolver or two. And maybe bring an accomplice or two along for additional firepower. You have quite a few co-conspirators to choose from.   You also might want to reconsider whether Ford's Theater is the best place to do this. According to numerous historians, Lincoln has a bad habit of ignoring advice from aides and strolling around Washington unescorted at times, leaving him seriously vulnerable. That might make it a bit easier to successfully pull this off.     Fanny Brown, one of Booth's many paramours   In summary then, your best bet is probably to make the attempt on Lincoln's life when he is alone and unprotected. And you should probably bring along some more impressive firepower, just in case. If you are determined to do it in the theater, you should don a disguise and bring along a couple other gunmen in case one or more of you are killed or physically prevented from reaching the president. The dumbest thing you could probably do would be to go it alone, as John Wilkes Booth, and arm yourself only with a derringer. But I guess you can't argue with success … right?   Meanwhile, one of your comrades-in-arms, Lewis Paine/Payne/Powell, has a difficult task ahead of him as well. His goal is to kill Lincoln's Secretary of State, William Seward, who is recuperating at his stately manor in the heart of DC after being severely injured in a fall from a horse-drawn carriage just nine days earlier. Seward had suffered a broken lower jaw, a fractured right arm, torn ligaments in his foot, and heavy bruising over much of his body.   The 63-year-old secretary is therefore physically vulnerable, but assassinating him is still not going to be easy. For starters, Paine is going to have to gain access to the estate. Then he's going to have to find Seward without knowing the layout of the home or which floor or which of the many rooms the secretary is in. And he's going to have to get past a lot of people, because there are no less than eight other able-bodied adults in the home, five of them men, two of whom are military personnel. And there are readily accessible weapons in the home. And, as I may have mentioned, there are armed patrols all over the city, and they are quite capable of quickly responding to any signs of a disturbance at the Secretary of State's residence.     The rear view of Ford's Theater and 'Baptist Alley'   The attack on Seward has been all but written out of our history books, but in 1865 it was portrayed as an integral component of the plot against Lincoln, particularly during the show trial of the alleged conspirators. It is now mentioned only in passing, if at all. Which is probably because the story doesn't make a whole lot of sense.   In the home are: William Seward, the injured Secretary of State; William Bell, Seward's black servant; Frederick Seward, William's son as well as his Assistant Secretary of State; Major Augustus Seward, another son and a career Army officer (who will be promoted in a few weeks to lieutenant colonel); Private George Robinson, Seward's personal attendant (who will be promoted to sergeant in a few weeks); Emerick Hansell, a US State Department courier; Frances Seward, the secretary's wife (who will be dead very soon); Fanny Seward, his daughter (who will be dead fairly soon); and, finally, the wife of one of the Seward sons.   Payne of course is going it alone, just like Booth, for reasons that have apparently never required an explanation. The five able-bodied men in the house, at least a couple of whom are likely armed, will pose a physical challenge. The three women will pose less of a physical threat, but one or more of them are very likely to run out into the street to summon any nearby patrols. And just the fact that there are so many people in the way will make it extremely difficult for Powell to control the situation.    Another of Booth's paramours, this one unidentified   Paine's mission is not unlike Booth's; he must enter the building, work his way past any resistance to get to his target, take out his target, work his way back out of the building past any resistance, and then somehow find his way out of Washington. But unlike Booth, Payne won't have even a single bullet to work with. Instead, he is going in armed only with a bludgeon and a knife. And he'll be coming out with nothing but the clothes on his back.   Technically speaking, he will be carrying a gun, but it doesn't work and so is only useful as a bludgeon. In a city overflowing with guns, Paine has chosen to bring one that doesn't work. Which means that, luckily for the Sewards, no one is going to die.   Paine though is going to leave quite a trail of destruction once he enters the estate, which sits just a half-dozen blocks from Ford's Theater. Frederick Seward will be left gravely injured, with his head reportedly split open and his skull fractured in two places. Major Augustus Seward will also receive severe head injuries, with one report claiming that he was half scalped. Private Robinson will also be seriously wounded, with deep stab wounds to his chest. Emerick Hansell will receive at least one deep, very serious chest wound as well. Fanny Seward will be wounded as well, in some unspecified manner. And William Seward – who is lying in bed on his back, unable to defend himself – will be brutally stabbed about the head and neck, but will, despite his already weakened condition, miraculously survive.   **********************************************************   It is difficult to believe that the attack on Secretary of State Seward ever took place at all. Lewis Paine supposedly gravely wounded six people in hand-to-hand combat, four of them able-bodied men, and yet, as photos taken soon after his arrest just days later reveal, he didn't have so much as a scratch on him. He supposedly left his hat, gun and knife behind, creating a handy evidence trail, but why would he leave his only weapons behind? He also allegedly left a bloodstained coat with gloves and a fake moustache in the pocket in the woods just outside of DC. Lewis Paine was apparently a very considerate attempted assassin.      Lewis Paine, April 1865   The descriptions of the conditions of the victims came from the first three people to conveniently arrive at the crime scene: Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, and Surgeon General Joseph Barnes. You know, just your typical first responders. None of them reported seeing Augustus there. Stanton initially claimed that only William Seward, Fred Seward and George Robinson were injured; Augustus Seward, Emerick Hansell and Fanny Seward were later added to the victim list, apparently so that the prosecution would have suitable witnesses. It was an entire month before Fanny Seward came forward with her account of the attack.   Augustus was later presented at trial as both a victim of and an eyewitness to the attack – the attack that very likely didn't take place, in the home he wasn't actually in at the time. His testimony was wildly at odds with that of Robinson, with both men claiming that they had been in the room and personally witnessed the attack on William Seward. Not only did their accounts significantly differ, but neither really explained why it was that with the two of them in the room, and with Frederick and Hansell in the home as well, they were unable to defend the secretary.     This remarkable image of Paine, captured in April 1865, has been lovingly colorized   It is impossible to determine whether the alleged attack ever took place, but it appears extremely unlikely. It does not seem logistically possible for one barely armed man to have done what Paine is supposed to have done. And it doesn't seem physically possible for him to have done so without sustaining a single visible injury. There is no tangible evidence that Paine ever entered the home. The only 'evidence' that has ever existed is the dubious (and conflicting) accounts told by the alleged victims and by the high-ranking cabinet officials who just happened to be first on the scene.   Let's now briefly review the key elements of this story: two assassins; three targets; numerous people to get through to get to those targets; numerous other people to get by to flee the scene; a city essentially under martial law; and one – exactly one – bullet. Anyone see anything wrong with that scenario?   … to be continued   Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part III by Dave McGowan | Mar 16, 2014 Anyone notice anything peculiar about the two images of Lewis Powell in my last post? Anything at all? Other than, of course, the fact that one of them had been colorized, making it appear unsettlingly contemporary? Because they are, to be sure, very unusual images.   There's really nothing else like them in all of recorded history – except for, that is, the remarkable images that also exist of most of his alleged co-conspirators. And perhaps it is time for us to now meet those alleged conspirators, beginning with the rather dashing gentleman pictured below, Mr. Samuel Bland Arnold, who looks almost like he could be a 21st century actor posing for a publicity photo for his latest blockbuster film.     Arnold was thirty at the time of the assassination and was working as a commissary clerk at Fortress Monroe, Virginia. He was said to be a former Confederate soldier, though it seems very likely that he was actually a Union operative (as appears to be the case with almost all of Booth's alleged accomplices). The files of the Bureau of Military Justice (a misnomer if ever there was one) contain the following tidbits of information on Arnold:   "Samuel B. Arnold was born at Georgetown, D.C., of highly respectable parents … He was first sent to be educated at Georgetown College, from there he was sent to the Reverend J.H. Dashills, [in] Baltimore County, his parents having removed from Georgetown to Baltimore. He was one year in Rockingham County, Virginia, under the charge of the Reverend Mr. Gibbins, and afterward sent to Saint Timothy Hall, Catonsville, Maryland, and place[d] under the Rev. L. Vanbakelin."   The picture painted here is of a well educated young man who had a rather privileged upbringing in and around the nation's capital. Not at all the kind of guy you would expect to have donned a Confederate uniform, unless he did so as a covert Union operative. Arnold was convicted of complicity in the plot to kill Lincoln and was handed a life sentence by the military tribunal. He served only four years though before being pardoned by President Johnson and released in 1869. Arnold lived to the ripe old age of seventy-two, passing away on the autumnal equinox of 1906.   Next up is Michael O'Laughlin (or O'Laughlen – the two are used interchangeably throughout the literature on the assassination), who, like Arnold, was a ruggedly handsome, well dressed young man from a well-to-do family. Just twenty-four when Lincoln was shot, O'Laughlin had known Booth since childhood, when they had lived across the street from each other in Baltimore (Arnold had also been a childhood friend of Mr. Booth). The Bureau of Military Justice files reveal the following about O'Laughlin:   "Michael O'Laughlin was born in the City of Baltimore … He was educated at a School conducted by a highly respectable Teacher at the corner of Front and LaFayette Sts., and after leaving School learned the trade of ornamental Plaster work, and also acquired the art of Engraving. The company he was in the habit of associating with was not of a character that a person indisposed to evil would have made choice of. His appearance was generally of a genteel character."       In 1865, O'Laughlin was working for his older brother as a clerk in a Baltimore feed store. That brother, according to government files, was a member of the Knights of the Golden Circle. Testimony before the military tribunal indicated that Michael likely was as well. Convicted by that tribunal, O'Laughlin was given a life sentence, which proved to be a death sentence when he contracted yellow fever in prison and died, strangely enough, on or about the autumnal equinox of 1867. His remains are interred in the same Baltimore cemetery where Arnold and Booth can be found.   Like Arnold and O'Laughlin (and Booth), David Edgar Herold (frequently identified in print as David Herald) was a well educated young man from an upscale family. Herold was born in Maryland and raised in – where else? – Washington, DC. His father was the chief clerk at the Washington Navy Yard store – the same Washington Navy Yard whose guarded bridge Booth and Herold were inexplicably allowed to cross on the night of April 14, 1865.   Herold attended Georgetown College, followed by the Rittenhouse Academy and then the prestigious Charlotte Hall Military Academy. He later went to work for various pharmacists and doctors, including our old friend "Dr." Francis Tumblety. On one occasion in 1863, when he was dispatched to the White House to deliver a bottle of castor oil, Herold had the honor of personally meeting President Lincoln.\   Tried along with seven of his alleged co-conspirators, Herold was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. That sentence was carried out on July 7, 1865, just after Herold's twenty-third birthday. He is, as would be expected, buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, DC.   Thus far we have met four lads (Booth, Herold, McLaughlin, and Arnold) who all were raised in and lived and worked in the Baltimore/Washington DC area. Considering that the conspiracy to kill Lincoln, to the extent that it is acknowledged at all, is invariably cast as a Confederate conspiracy, there don't appear to have been too many southerners in the crowd. There was at least one though – our old friend Lewis Thornton Powell.   The youngest of the alleged conspirators – just twenty at the time of the assassination – Powell was also known as Lewis Paine, Lewis Payne, Reverend Wood, The Reverend, James Wood, Mosby, and Kincheloe, among other aliases. As his shadowy identities would seem to imply, he was by many accounts an intelligence operative. Raised in Alabama, Georgia and Florida, Powell was educated by his father, the Reverend George C. Powell. Lewis entered the service at a young age – either sixteen or seventeen, depending upon the source. Powell's two older brothers enlisted as well, with all three serving with the 2nd Florida Infantry. Lewis was the only one of the three to survive the Civil War. Wounded at Gettysburg in early July 1863, he was taken prisoner and sent to a POW hospital. Following his recovery, he was put to work as a male nurse in a hospital in Baltimore, from where he reportedly escaped, apparently by basically walking out the door.   After that, according to historian Theodore Roscoe (The Web of Conspiracy), his "movements are hard to follow." Author Jim Bishop added, in The Day Lincoln Was Shot, that "There is an unexplained hitch in his [military] records." According to various accounts, he went to work with the paramilitary forces serving under John Singleton Mosby. In January 1865, he turned up in a boardinghouse in Baltimore, Maryland and allegedly became a Lincoln assassination conspirator. On July 7, 1865, he was hanged.   There is scant evidence that Powell knew Booth at all, though an apocryphal tale is often told of a very young Lewis meeting Booth in a theater following a performance by the acclaimed actor. There doesn't appear to be any evidence at all linking him to the other alleged conspirators. He photographed really well though.   Moving back up north, we next meet the hapless Ned Spangler, also known as Ed Spangler, Edward Spangler, Edman Spangler, and Edmund Spangler. The oldest of the alleged male conspirators at thirty-nine, Spangler was a journeyman carpenter originally from Pennsylvania, though he had spent the majority of his life in the Baltimore area. During the Civil War, he was living in Washington, DC, where he was employed at Ford's Theater as a carpenter and stagehand. Spangler had met Booth many years earlier when he worked on the Booth family's Tudor mansion. In the aftermath of the Lincoln assassination, he was accused of holding Booth's horse and aiding and abetting the actor's escape from the theater. The charges though were dubious at best. Sentenced to a six-year prison term, the most lenient sentence handed down by the military tribunal, he was pardoned four years later by President Andrew Johnson. Spangler died on February 7, 1875, reportedly of tuberculosis.   Next up is the only foreign national in the group, George Andrew Atzerodt, who was brought over to America from Germany when he was eight. Raised in, of course, Maryland, Atzerodt and his brother owned a carriage repair shop where George worked as a painter. At the time of the assassination, he was twenty-nine.   The military tribunal maintained that Atzerodt had been assigned the task of assassinating newly-installed Vice President Andrew Johnson, but he had allegedly lost his nerve and failed to carry out the assignment. In truth, there is no real evidence that Johnson, who was likely involved or at least had knowledge of the plot, was ever targeted. As with Stanton, this was a case of the conspirators themselves claiming to be intended victims. Atzerodt was found guilty of his alleged crimes and was hanged on July 7, 1865.   The seventh of the alleged conspirators was Dr. Samuel Mudd, yet another Marylander. Like many of the others, Mudd was born into a large, well-to-do family and he was well educated, having graduated from both GeorgetownCollege in DC and the medical school at the University of Maryland in Baltimore. Mudd worked as both a country doctor and a tobacco farmer, and was reportedly a slave owner who harbored southern sympathies.   Mudd, thirty-two at the time, stood trial along with the others on charges of having aided and abetted Booth's plot and having offered medical aid to the injured actor. His actual role has been fiercely debated by mainstream historians, all of whom have grossly misrepresented the Lincoln assassination. Convicted by the tribunal, Mudd was sentenced to life in prison but was pardoned just four years later by Johnson.   Having now met seven of the nine people who stood trial as Booth's alleged co-conspirators, is there anything that stands out as unusual about the images adorning this post? Anything at all? And keep in mind that these are official booking photos, otherwise known as mugshots. But they certainly don't look like any other mugshots ever taken. We certainly have no such images of Lee Harvey Oswald. Or Sirhan Sirhan. Or Charles Guiteau. Or Leon Czolgosz. Or James Earl Ray. Or John Hinckley. Or Mark David Chapman. Or any other alleged assassin or attempted assassin. Or anyone ever arrested on suspicion of having committed any crime.   No one else, you see, had one of the top professional photographers of the era come by to take their mugshots. No one else had the benefit of dramatic backdrops, professional lighting, and flattering poses and camera angles. And no one else was photographed by the very same guy, Alexander Gardner, who was long credited as being the guy who took the last known images of President Abraham Lincoln.   When called upon to photograph the people accused of plotting against that president, Gardner certainly rose to the occasion. The images of the alleged Lincoln conspirators are arguably the finest work that the Civil War photographer ever did. The portraits of the conspirators' victim, taken not long before Lincoln's death, are rather lackluster in comparison.     The very same Alexander Gardner was also the guy who, just weeks after lovingly photographing the alleged conspirators, photographed several of those same conspirators being led to the gallows and hanged. And the guy who officially photographed Lincoln's funeral. And the guy who took the only image of what was claimed to be the body of John Wilkes Booth, after the actor had allegedly been gunned down and transported back to Washington.     Left to right: Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt   That image though won't be displayed here, for reasons explained by author W.C. Jameson (Return of Assassin): "Following the work of the identification committee, the body was photographed by Alexander Gardner, one of the members. Gardner conducted his work in the presence of War Department detective James A. Wardell. Gardner was allowed to take only one photograph and was quickly hastened to a darkroom to develop it. Wardell stood by his side the entire time, and when the picture was finished, Wardell took possession of it, along with the plate … Moments later, Lafayette Baker took the photographic plate from Wardell. In response to subsequent inquiries, the government denied that any photographs were ever taken of the body … To this day, no one knows what became of either the picture or the plate."   Theodore Roscoe adds that, "Undoubtedly Gardner gave the glass plate to Lafayette Baker or to Stanton. But the Secret Service Chief made no mention of it in his history. Stanton never mentioned it. War Department records are absolutely silent on the subject. The photograph never reached public domain."   Nothing unusual about any of that. Returning now to the collection of the world's most glamorous mugshots, it should be noted that there are, beyond their mere existence, other curiosities concerning these photos. Like the fact that the photo of Dr. Mudd that was officially released, and presented above, isn't actually Dr. Mudd at all. It appears to be Hartmann Richter, a cousin of George Atzerodt who was never charged with any complicity in the assassination plot. The real Dr. Mudd is pictured below.       And then there is the guy in the next image, officially photographed as a conspirator yet never charged, tried or even identified. The government just pretended as though he never existed. The appearance of the alleged conspirators in these striking images stands in stark contrast to their treatment throughout their confinement, which can only be described as barbaric. The suspects' ankles and wrists were kept shackled at all times. They were forced to wear specially-designed heavy leather hoods at all times other than when they were in court. The hoods were very tightly fit and featured pads that put tremendous pressure on the prisoners' eyes, causing intense pain in addition to subjecting the wearers to extreme and prolonged sensory deprivation. Some of the prisoners were also fitted with iron collars attached to a heavy ball and chain. These also had to be worn at all times.   All suspects were confined to tiny solitary cells outfitted with just a thin straw mattress, a worn army blanket, and an open bucket to use as a toilet. They were allowed no visitors and their guards were even forbidden from speaking to them. Armed sentries kept watch at all times to ensure that the prisoners had no human interaction whatsoever. Each suspect was assigned to a cluster of three cells, insuring that they had no neighbors to interact with. It was widely rumored that they were being tortured in more overt ways as well, which was undoubtedly the case.   No attorneys were provided for the defendants; they had to retain their own counsel, despite being completely cut off from the outside world. Consequently, some of them began the proceedings with no representation. Even after obtaining counsel, they were not allowed to have any private consultations with their attorneys. And they were not allowed to testify or speak in court at all, nor could any statements made by them be introduced.   But other than all that – and numerous other factors, which will be discussed later – the conspirators were given a fair trial. Let's now close out this edition by meeting the last of the alleged conspirators who were tried by military tribunal – the one who, without explanation, was not photographed by Mr. Gardner. That would be, of course, Mary Surratt, the first woman to be executed in these United States. Surratt was, shockingly, a native Marylander from a rather wealthy family. Born sometime in the early 1820s (no one seems to know exactly when), she was educated at a private Catholic boarding school in Alexandria, Virginia, at a time when, as Theodore Roscoe noted, "higher learning for females was frowned upon as radical." At fifteen (or sixteen, or nineteen), she married John Surratt, with whom she had three offspring, Isaac, Anna, and John, Jr.   The Surratts did well for themselves for a number of years. At one time, John owned as many as 1,200 acres of land and a number of businesses, including a hotel, a tavern and a boardinghouse. Much of that land straddled the border between DC and Maryland, just thirteen miles from downtown Washington, DC. The settlement there soon came to be known as Surrattsville, which is frequently claimed to have been heavily involved in Confederate espionage activities.   Spymaster Lafayette Baker, accompanied by some 300 Union soldiers, converged on Surrattsville in late 1861 to launch a full investigation of the Surratt family and various others suspected of involvement in the Confederate underground. According to pseudo-historian Roy Chamlee, Jr. (Lincoln's Assassins), Baker's team unearthed compelling evidence of a vast network of covert Confederate operations. They made though only a few token arrests, which, given that thousands elsewhere were rounded up by Baker's thugs in mass arrests based on far less evidence than what was found in Surrattsville, strongly suggests that the operations in Surrattsville weren't actually aimed at aiding the south,   In any event, John Surratt died in 1862 and his widow fell upon hard times. She was nevertheless able to finance a costly move to the heart of DC in late 1864, taking possession of a boardinghouse just four blocks from Ford's Theater. It was in that boardinghouse that Booth and the others allegedly plotted first the kidnapping of, and then the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Found guilty by the military tribunal, Mary Surratt was hanged on July 7, 1865.   … to be continued Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part IV by Dave McGowan | Apr 7, 2014 In the last installment, we met the seven men and one woman who faced trial by military tribunal for their alleged roles in the plot to assassinate President Abraham Lincoln. But there were two others involved in the supposed conspiracy: the mastermind and assassin, John Wilkes Booth, and his alleged right-hand man, John Harrison Surratt, Jr., son of the executed Mary Surratt.   Like most of his alleged co-conspirators, Surratt was a well educated, good looking young man from a well-to-do Northern family. He was born in April 1844 to John and Mary Surratt, and was baptized at St. Peter's Church in – where else? – Washington, DC. He was educated at St. Charles College in, naturally enough, Maryland. At the tender age of eighteen, following the death of his father, Surratt became the Postmaster of Surratsville. Beyond that, little is known about the early life of the man cast by the government as Booth's primary accomplice. As Theodore Roscoe wrote in The Web of Conspiracy:   "Official records on John Harrison Surratt, Jr., are similarly devoid of depth … He passes through Washington like a shadow. His appearances in the house on H Street are shadowy. Now he is glimpsed in Richmond. Next he is glimpsed in Canada. The authorities can never quite lay their hands on him, and neither can the historians. Of the immediate members of Booth's coterie, least is known about John Harrison Surratt, Jr."     John Harrison Surratt, Jr., as sketched by an artist for Harper's Weekly   Roscoe claims, as have many other historians, that Surratt "operated as spy and as message-bearer, conveying Confederate dispatches between Richmond, Washington, and Montreal, Canada. By the time Mrs. Surratt's boardinghouse was well established in Washington, John H. Surratt had become a well paid and highly adept operator in the Secret Service of the C.S.A. [Confederate States of America]" Maybe so. It seems far more likely though, given various facts of the case, that he was actually a Union operative posing as a Confederate operative. Or that the two 'sides' were actually one and the same, as seems likely.   Of the ten alleged conspirators, Surratt, who celebrated his 21st birthday just one day before Lincoln was gunned down, was the only one not to be captured or killed in the massive manhunt that followed the assassination. He quickly made his way to Canada, where he found sanctuary with a Catholic priest during the time that his mother was being tried, sentenced and hanged. He left Canada in early September, some two months after the executions had been carried out. From that point on, the US government appears to have been well aware of his movements and whereabouts.     John Surratt in his Papal Zouave uniform   On March 4, 1867, the Washington Daily Morning Chronicle summarized the findings of an investigation by the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives as follows: "It appears that Surratt sailed from Canada in September 1865, and landed in Liverpool on the 27th of the same month; that the fact of his landing was communicated to Secretary Seward by the American vice consul, Mr. Wilding. No steps were taken by the President or Secretary of State to secure his arrest. No demand was made upon England for his return to this country, nor is there any evidence of the procurement or attempted procurement of an indictment against him."   Surratt himself would later say that, "While I was in London, Liverpool and Birmingham, our consuls at those ports knew who I was and advised our State Department of my whereabouts, but nothing was done." Curious behavior indeed for a government that had, just months earlier, aggressively prosecuted and executed lesser conspirators.   On November 24, 1865, two months into Surratt's leisurely stay in England, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton abruptly withdrew the standing reward on Surratt's head, clearly signaling to Europe and elsewhere that the US wasn't all that interested in pursuing the capture and prosecution of the alleged conspirator. Stanton, needless to say, offered no explanation for his unusual actions.   In April 1866, Surratt sailed from England to Italy, arriving in Rome, where he was almost immediately assigned a position with the Pope's elite Papal Zouave military guard. On April 21, a fellow Zouave, Henri de Sainte-Marie, who happened to be an old friend from Maryland, informed America's minister to Rome, General Rufus King, of Surratt's whereabouts and true identity. A Cardinal Antonelli explained to King that "if the American government desired the surrender of the criminal there would be no difficulty in the way." The US government, nevertheless, chose to look the other way.   Returning once again to the summary of the findings of the House Committee, we find that "news of [Surratt's] presence in Rome did reach the ears of minister King. He was informed by another than the Secretary of State that Surratt was in the military service of the Pope, and communicated the fact by letter, dated August 8, 1866, to his department. Notwithstanding this, no steps were taken to identify or secure the arrest of the supposed conspirator and assassin …" [emphasis added]   No explanation was given, of course, for the nearly four-month delay in drafting and sending the letter. On November 11, 1866, after Surratt had been going about his business in Rome for some seven months, making no effort to disguise himself, Papal authorities ordered his arrest. He allegedly then leapt from a cliff and made his escape, somehow supposedly surviving a 100-foot drop and evading at least 50 soldiers who were in hot pursuit within minutes. He then casually made his way across Italy, keeping a low profile by continuing to wear the garishly colored uniform of the Papal Zouave.     Barracks at Veroli, Italy, from where John Surrat purportedly escaped   After making his way to Naples, where he was sheltered by the local police and allowed to sleep at the station as a non-paying guest for three nights, he booked passage first to Malta and then to Alexandria, Egypt. On November 27, 1866, he was finally arrested by US authorities. It was almost another full month though before he was dispatched back to the US aboard the Swatara, a US Navy vessel, which set sail on the winter solstice, December 21, 1866.   That return voyage took unusually long to reach the states, nearly a month and a half. Had a paddleboat been available, Washington likely would have opted to use that. Upon reaching US shores, the vessel was delayed for another few weeks while the crew waited for ice to melt on the Potomac. There were, of course, other ports available from which Surratt could have been quickly transported by train to Washington, but authorities chose to delay his arrival for as long as possible.   As researcher Vaughan Shelton (Mask for Treason) wrote, "When the papal government in Rome finally forced the issue by arresting Surratt, every possible tactic was used to delay his return." Otto Eisenschiml (In the Shadow of Lincoln's Death) concurred, noting that "Stanton had tried his utmost to keep Surratt from being brought back at all …"   On February 4, 1867, the Grand Jury of the District of Columbia indicted John Surratt, who was still being held aboard the Swatara at the mouth of the Potomac. On February 19, the Swatara finally anchored at the Washington Navy Yard and Surratt set foot on US soil for the first time in nearly two years. A bench warrant for his arrest was issued that same day. Four days later, on February 23, Surratt was brought to court to enter a plea.      Lead defense attorney Joseph H. Bradley   Co-counsel Richard T. Merrick   On April 18, 1867, Surratt's defense attorneys filed a motion to set a date for the start of the trial, saying they were fully prepared to proceed.  On that very same day, the district attorney's office filed a motion for a continuance. It was just the first of many attempts by the state to delay the onset of the trial. The New York Herald reported, on May 19, 1867, that the "prisoner's legal representatives have over and over again reported themselves ready, but, contrary to the general ruling, the prosecution, after six months of preparation, has never yet been able to say, 'We are prepared to proceed with the trial.'" Ten days later, the Baltimore Sun added that it "is hinted that, for reasons not made public, the trial of Surratt is not at all desirable."   The question that most obviously comes to mind throughout this sordid chapter of US history is why the government suddenly lost the desire to aggressively pursue and prosecute the last alleged Lincoln conspirator? The primary reason is that, with the war over, Washington no longer had any justification for seeking 'justice' through a military tribunal and would have to rely instead on civilian courts. And that meant that the proceedings couldn't be controlled and corrupted to nearly the extent that they had been throughout the first mock trial.   That presented Washington with a huge problem. Without the muzzling of the defendant, and without the wholesale introduction of perjured testimony and manufactured evidence, and with the requirement that actual rules of law be followed, the state had little chance for a conviction. And given that eight others had already been either executed or exiled to America's version of Siberia, despite the fact that they had played lesser roles in the alleged conspiracy, it wasn't going to look very good to have John Surratt walk out of the courtroom a free man.   In addition, the government had pulled out all the stops to lay the assassination to rest as quickly as possible. The other alleged conspirators had been rounded up, indicted, tried, convicted, sentenced, and executed/imprisoned in less than three months, primarily because Washington had a vested interest in wrapping things up as quickly as possible, before too many troubling questions could be raised. The last thing they now wanted to do was reopen the case to public scrutiny.   Given little choice though in the matter, the case proceeded to trial in June 1867. And true to form, the state did its very best to rig the proceedings. As America's first Secret Service chief, William P. Wood, later wrote, Surratt was "confronted with an abundance of perjured testimony." He was also confronted with an abundance of bogus evidence, including a document that had supposedly been in the water for six weeks before being recovered, but which showed no signs of exposure whatsoever.   And then there were the laughably biased jury instructions delivered by presiding Judge George Fisher, which kicked off with the immortal words: "Whoso sheddeth man's blood by man shall his blood be shed. So spake the Almighty." One would have to search far and wide through the annals of American jurisprudence to find a more wildly inappropriate set of jury instructions.      Presiding Judge George P. Fisher   To insure that the trial was properly rigged, Secretary of State William Seward hired Edwards Pierrepont, an old friend of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, to assist the prosecution, although neither the State Department nor the War Department should have had anything to do with what was ostensibly a civil trial. Pierrepont was a descendant of James Pierepont, a cofounder of Yale University. Also hired by Seward, to assist Pierrepont, was Albert G. Riddle. Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles' diary would later reveal that Riddle "had been employed by Seward to hunt up, or manufacture, testimony against Surratt."   One of the most bizarre aspects of the Surratt trial was the testimony delivered by our old friend Henry Rathbone, who was called to the stand, as he had been at the military trial, to provide eyewitness testimony as to the shooting of Lincoln. Although it was not commented upon at the time, or for decades after, Rathbone was clearly not spontaneously recalling events as they had happened, but rather was reciting his testimony from a memorized script.   That script appears to have been created on April 17, 1865, two days after Lincoln died, when Rathbone was purportedly deposed. A portion of that alleged deposition reads as follows: "That on April 14th, 1865, at about 20 minutes past 8 o'clock in the evening, he, with Miss Clara H. Harris, left his residence, at the corner of Fifteenth and H Streets, and joined the President and Mrs. Lincoln, and went with them in their carriage to Ford's Theater, in Tenth Street … When the party entered the box, a cushioned armchair was standing at the end of the box farthest from the stage and nearest the audience … When the second scene of the third act was being performed, and while this deponent was intently observing the proceedings upon the stage, with his back toward the door, he heard the discharge of a pistol behind him, and looking around, saw, through the smoke, a man between the door and the President … This deponent instantly sprang toward him and seized him; he wrested himself from the grasp, and made a violent thrust at the breast of deponent with a large knife. Deponent parried the blow by striking it up, and received a wound several inches deep in his left arm, between the elbow and the shoulder …"   One month later, on May 15, 1865, Rathbone testified before the military tribunal. With the exception of delivering his testimony in the first person, it was a nearly verbatim recital of the script prepared the month before, and went a little something like this: "On the evening of the 14th of April last, at about 20 minutes past 8 o'clock, I, in company with Miss Harris, left my residence at the corner of Fifteenth and H Streets, and joined the President and Mrs. Lincoln, and went with them, in their carriage, to Ford's Theater in Tenth Street … On entering the box there was a large armchair that was placed nearest the audience, farthest from the stage … When the second scene of the third act was being performed, and while I was intently observing the proceedings upon the stage, with my back towards the door, I heard the discharge of a pistol behind me, and, looking round, saw, through the smoke, a man between the door and the President … I instantly sprang towards him, and seized him. He wrested himself from my grasp, and made a violent thrust at my breast with a large knife. I parried the blow by striking it up, and received a wound several inches deep in my left arm, between the elbow and the shoulder …"   A little over two years later, on June 17, 1867, Rathbone dusted off his script and delivered the following testimony at the trial of John Surratt: "On the evening of the 14th of April, at about 20 minutes past 8, I, in company with Miss Harris, left my residence at the corner of Fifteenth and H streets, and joined the President and Mrs. Lincoln, and went with them in their carriage to Ford's Theater, on Tenth street … On entering the box there was a large armchair placed nearest the audience, and furthest from the stage … When the second scene of the third act was being performed, and while I was intently observing the performance on the stage, I heard the report of a pistol from behind me, and on looking round saw dimly through the smoke the form of a man between the President and the door … I immediately sprung towards him and seized him. He wrested himself from my grasp, and at the same time made a violent thrust at me with a large knife. I parried the blow by striking it up, and received it on my left arm, between the elbow and the shoulder, and received a deep wound …"     State Department/War Department representatives Edwards Pierrepont      Albert G. Riddle   In the end though, the government's brazen attempts to corrupt the proceedings failed to pay dividends and the jury was left hung 8-4 in favor of acquittal. Even with the obviously perjured testimony, the manufactured evidence, and the wildly inappropriate jury instructions, the state was only able to secure four votes for conviction. And Surratt had found himself a number of new fans. As Eisenschiml noted, "The ladies of Washington considered him quite attractive and thronged the courtroom."   John Harrison Surratt walked out of court a free man, and the state quietly opted not to further pursue the charges. Five years later, he married Mary Victorine Hunter, a second cousin of none other than Francis Scott Key, whose son's murderer, it will be recalled, was defended by Edwin Stanton. Key's great-great-granddaughter Pauline Potter, by the way, later married Baron Philippe de Rothschild, of the infamous Rothschild banking family.   Surratt lived to the ripe old age of 72, passing away, curiously enough, on April 21, 1916, precisely 50 years to the day from when he had been identified in Rome as a member of the Papal Zouave. It is said that he had penned a biography, but he supposedly opted to burn it a few days before his death. In a similar vein, Robert Todd Lincoln is said to have burned all his father's private papers shortly before his own death – because, I suppose, one wouldn't want the truth about the assassination of one's father to reach the public domain. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part V by Dave McGowan | Apr 19, 2014 Defense attorney Joseph H. Bradley, whom we met in the last installment, had this to say to the jury and spectators at John Surratt's trial: "Who was John Wilkes Booth? … He was a man of polished exterior, pleasing address, highly respectable in every regard, received into the best circles of society; his company sought after; exceedingly bold, courteous, and considered generous to a fault; a warm and liberal-hearted friend, a man who had obtained a reputation upon the stage."   The woman who once reported him for rape in Philadelphia, and the irate, jealous husband who once severely throttled him in Syracuse, New York, might disagree.   Francis Wilson, one of Booth's biographers (John Wilkes Booth: Fact and Fiction of Lincoln's Assassination), posed the following question: "How was it possible for Booth to obtain such power over a fellow human being as to command him to perform an act of murder and to know that that command would be enthusiastically obeyed?" A little over a century after the assassination of Lincoln, prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi would ponder the very same question about a guy by the name of Charlie Manson: "I tend to think that there is something more, some missing link that enabled him to so rape and bastardize the minds of his followers that they would go against the most ingrained of all commandments, Thou shalt not kill, and willingly, even eagerly, murder at his command."   A friend of Booth's from childhood, John Deery, said that the John Wilkes Booth that he knew "cast a spell over most men with whom he came in contact, and I believe all women without exception."     Junius Brutus Booth, father of John Wilkes Booth   So who was this charismatic enigma known as John Wilkes Booth – the man known to history as possibly the most famous assassin who ever lived? Just about everyone knows that he was an actor, one of the finest and arguably the most popular of his generation. But he was much more than just that, a fact obscured by the century-and-a-half focus on John Wilkes Booth the actor. In reality, John Wilkes Booth, and the Booth family in general, were very deeply tied to the power structures in Washington and London, and had been for a very, very long time. And they still are today.   Booth's most famous ancestor was undoubtedly his namesake, John Wilkes, who lived from October 17, 1725 until December 26, 1797. Throughout his life, Wilkes served as a Member of Parliament, a judge, a journalist and essayist, and the Lord Mayor of London. A revered statesman, Wilkes was also a member of the Hellfire Club and a noted libertine (other notable libertines throughout history include the Marquis de Sade, Aleister Crowley, and Anton LaVey). That would be the same Hellfire Club that included as a member a 'Founding Father" by the name of Benjamin Franklin. And that would be the same Benjamin Franklin whose London home from that era yielded the remains of at least ten bodies, six of them children.     Lord Mayor of London John Wilkes   It was the Hellfire Club, by the way, that first coined the phrase "Do what thou wilt," which was later appropriated by Aleister Crowley. And it was the Hellfire Club that was widely rumored during its heyday to be conducting black masses and other occult/Satanic rituals, along with drunken orgies and various other acts of debauchery.   John Wilkes was also notable for being considered during his lifetime the ugliest man in all of England. He never though suffered from a shortage of beautiful female companions. Aside from a nine-year marriage, Wilkes remained single for his 72 years on this planet and was considered quite the ladies man, fathering an unknown number of children. Like his descendent and namesake, Wilkes apparently had a knack for "cast[ing] a spell" over women.     Two other of John Wilkes Booth's famous ancestors were Henry Booth, the 1st Earl of Warrington, who lived from 1652 to 1694, and his son George Booth, who lived from 1675 to 1758 and succeeded his father as the 2nd (and last) Earl of Warrington. At various times during his life, Henry Booth served as a Member of Parliament, a member of the Privy Council of England, a noted writer, and a mayor.   John Wilkes Booth was also descended from Barton Booth, who lived from 1681 to 1733 and who was described by one biographer as the "most popular actor with the English royalty known to history." Many generations later, namesake Sydney Barton Booth, a son of Junius Brutus Booth, Jr., would become an actor and writer of some renown before passing away in 1937.       Henry and George Booth, the 1st and 2nd Earls of Warrington   The alleged assassin's grandfather was Richard Booth, an eccentric English barrister with a fondness for alcohol – a fondness that would be shared by his son, Junius Brutus Booth, and his grandson, John Wilkes Booth. Junius was born in London in 1796 and was performing on stage by the age of seventeen. At nineteen, he married Marie Christine Adelaide Delannoy. Less than five months later, she bore him his first child, who died in infancy, as would a number of Junius Brutus Booth's offspring.   In June 1821, at the age of twenty-five, Junius set sail for America with his mistress, Mary Ann Holmes, leaving behind his wife and only surviving child, Richard Junius Booth. Junius and Mary Ann would pose as man and wife for the next thirty years, producing no fewer than ten illegitimate offspring, four of whom didn't make it through childhood. The pair weren't actually married until 1851, the year Junius finally divorced his actual wife, and were married just one year before Junius passed away in November 1852.   During his lifetime, Junius was considered to be one of the finest actors of his generation. He was also regarded as a playwright, scholar, philosopher and linguist. Named for one of the most notorious assassins of all time, Junius once set a fine example for son John by sending a letter to then-President Andrew Jackson threatening to slit his throat and/or have him burned at the stake. And he thoughtfully signed that letter and included a return address. It was, nevertheless, dismissed as either a hoax or a joke.   John Brown   Junius and Mary Ann purchased a 150-acre estate in Maryland that would ultimately feature a large pool, stables, and a Gothic home known as Tudor Hall, listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Junius began construction on the home shortly before his death and so never lived there, though his offspring, including John Wilkes Booth, did. Ned Spangler, it will be recalled, was involved in the construction of the home.   John Wilkes Booth, the ninth of Junius and Mary Ann's ten offspring, was born on May 10, 1838. A well educated young man, he was regarded as an excellent horseman and marksman as well as a talented athlete. Like his father, he made his acting debut at seventeen, in an 1855 production of Richard III. By 1861, he was one of the most popular actors in America and there was considerable demand for his services.     Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth at Lincoln's second inaugural address   On December 2, 1859, John Wilkes Booth was among the soldiers standing guard on the scaffold when probable agent provocateur John Brown was hanged. Booth was not a soldier though – he purportedly either borrowed or stole a militia uniform and posed as a soldier to secure the position. On March 4, 1865, Booth found himself prominently placed among the onlookers at Lincoln's second inaugural address. He was there as a guest of US Senator John P. Hale.   Unknown at the time was that Booth was secretly engaged to Hale's daughter, Lucy Hale. Senator Hale had worked closely with fellow Senator William Seward before Seward's appointment as Secretary of State. Notably, Hale was a northern senator, representing New Hampshire, and he was known for his staunchly abolitionist views. It makes perfect sense then that his daughter would be engaged to an alleged Confederate operative.     Senator John P. Hale   During John Wilkes Booth's lifetime, there was another member of the Booth/Wilkes clan who achieved a considerable amount of public notoriety. Charles Wilkes was a US naval officer who ultimately attained the rank of rear admiral, as well as a celebrated explorer who led the United States Exploring Expedition from 1838 to 1842. He was also a great-nephew of John Wilkes, making him a blood relative of John Wilkes Booth and his numerous siblings.   Charles Wilkes was raised by his aunt, Elizabeth Ann Seton, who was a woman of considerable social prominence who later became the first American-born woman to be canonized by the Catholic Church. In the 1820s, Wilkes counted among his associates a genocidal Grand Master Mason by the name of Andrew Jackson – the same Andrew Jackson who was also, by some reports, a friend of Junius Brutus Booth, the guy who 'jokingly' threatened to assassinate him.     Charles Wilkes   Many years later, another member of the Booth clan, Theresa Cara Booth, was born on September 23, 1954. Theresa is a direct descendent of Algernon Booth, Junius Brutus Booth's brother and John Wilkes Booth's uncle. She became an attorney in 1976 and a member of the Queen's Counsel in 1995. Two years later, Theresa Booth – better known as Cherie Blair, wife of Tony Blair – became the First Lady of Downing Street. Nothing unusual about that, I suppose.   In the aftermath of the Lincoln assassination, actors were viewed with considerable suspicion across the country. The entire cast of Our American Cousin was arrested and numerous other productions closed for a time due to the lynch-mob mentality that was sweeping the nation. No one was above suspicion and, as previously noted, more than 2,000 people were arrested as possible co-conspirators. Those with only the loosest connections to the accused coup plotters were scooped up and held for varying lengths of time.   Two of John Wilkes Booth's brothers, Edwin and Junius Brutus, Jr., were fellow actors. Clearly then they had two big strikes against them, which should have put them at the very top of the government's round-up list. And yet not a single member of the Booth clan was arrested in the frenzy of arrests and accusations. Not one. It always helps to have friends in high places.     The Op-Ed page of the Los Angeles Times apparently now operates in part as a forum for unpaid advertisements for intelligence agency-approved works of fiction. I say that because just a few days ago that page featured what was essentially a half-page ad for Jeff Bauman's hopelessly fraudulent account of the Boston Marathon bombings. And yesterday that same page featured a barely disguised advertisement for a book written by a professional liar by the name of Mel Ayton.   Ayton has apparently penned a whole series of disinformational books on various presidential assassinations and attempted assassinations. His latest, Hunting the President: Threats, Plots and Assassination Attempts – From FDR to Obama, carries on in that fine tradition. The following paragraph is from his wildly inaccurate Op-Ed piece:   "Lincoln was the first American president to be assassinated. But the motivations that drove his assassin were unfortunately not unique. Understanding the nature of those who want to kill a president goes considerably further toward explaining assassinations than looking to fanciful conspiracy theories."     Cherie Blair, aka Theresa Cara Booth   Let's now take a peek at what "fanciful" theory it is that Ayton is pitching: "Booth's desire for fame and recognition is a common theme among assassins. In researching a book on presidential killers and would-be killers, I found that they tended to share certain personality traits. While some had been treated for mental illness, an even more predominant characteristic is that many of them were disillusioned with and resentful of American society after a lifetime of failure. And most of them also had a burning desire for notoriety. Killing an American president, most would-be assassins believed, would win them a place in history, making a 'somebody' out of a 'nobody.'"   Every single word of the preceding paragraph can only be described as complete and utter bullshit. Booth already had fame and recognition beyond his wildest dreams. He was far from being a "nobody." To the contrary, he was making upwards of $20,000 a year, a staggering amount in those days, and had the love, respect and admiration of men and women all across the country. He was wealthy, good looking, supremely talented, and had lived a very charmed life. And given that he was only twenty-six at the time of the assassination, it is hardly accurate to say that he had faced a "lifetime" of failure. In truth, he had never known failure at all in his short life.   Compulsive liar Ayton's body of work is, unfortunately, typical of what has been written about Lincoln and his alleged assassin over the last 149 years. Listed below, in order of the date of release, are some of the more honest books that have been published (some decidedly better than others).   Bates, Finis L.  The Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth, J.L Nichols & Company, 1907 Wilson, Francis  John Wilkes Booth: Fact and Fiction of Lincoln's Assassination, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1929 Eisenschiml, Otto  Why Was Lincoln Murdered?, Little, Brown and Company, 1937 Eisenschiml, Otto  In the Shadow of Lincoln's Death, Wilfred Funk, Inc., 1940 Roscoe, Theodore  The Web of Conspiracy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959 Shelton, Vaughan  Mask for Treason: The Lincoln Murder Trial, Stackpole Books, 1965 Balsiger, David and Charles Sellier, Jr.  The Lincoln Conspiracy, Schick Sunn Classic Books, 1977 Jameson, W.C.  Return of Assassin: John Wilkes Booth, Republic of Texas Press, 1999 Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part VI by Dave McGowan | May 7, 2014 "The assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, only days after the end of the war, was a terrible tragedy. Much has been speculated about the events leading up to the murder and immediately afterward, but few people know what really happened." So says Bill O'Reilly on page 1 of his tome on the Lincoln assassination. What he doesn't tell readers is that after reading his novelized account, they will still have no clue what really happened.   One thing that O'Reilly opts to leave out of his book entirely is the mockery of a trial held for the alleged conspirators. After spending the first 276 pages of his book covering the period from April 1, 1865 to April 26, 1865 (the day Booth was allegedly gunned down at Garrett's barn), O'Reilly then abruptly jumps ahead to July 7, 1865, the day four of the alleged conspirators were hanged. Apparently nothing of significance happened in May or June of 1865. Or maybe it is best not to shine too bright a light on one of the most sordid chapters of US history.   US Navy Secretary Gideon Welles is on record as stating that Secretary of War Edwin Stanton wanted the alleged conspirators to be "tried and executed before President Lincoln was buried." Convictions were obviously a given. Lincoln was laid to rest on May 4, 1865, nineteen days after he died and just before the trial of the conspirators began, thwarting Stanton's wishes, but 'justice' was dispensed very quickly nonetheless.   Stanton favored a military trial, a course of action opposed by various other members of the Lincoln cabinet, including both Welles and former Attorney General Edward Bates, who noted that "if the offenders are done to death by that tribunal, however truly guilty, they will pass for martyrs with half the world." Many believed that a military trial would be unconstitutional given that all of the defendants were civilians. Stanton nevertheless prevailed.   It would in fact be later determined that the proceedings had been unconstitutional, both because the suspects were subjected to military 'justice,' and because they were denied their right to individual trials. That ruling would not, however, resurrect the five alleged conspirators who paid with their lives.   While awaiting what passed for a trial, the prisoners were held in appalling conditions aboard two ironclad vessels, the Montauk and the Saugus (except for Mudd and Surratt, who were reportedly held elsewhere and spared the tortuous hoods). Very special attention appears to have been paid to Lewis Powell. Throughout his confinement, Powell was personally guarded by Thomas T. Eckert, which is undoubtedly the only time in the nation's history that a sitting Assistant Secretary of War served as a lowly prison guard. Even more curiously, despite the fact that Powell was kept shackled, hooded, isolated, and otherwise deprived, he was nevertheless allowed to keep a knife while imprisoned. And false reports were circulated indicating that he was suicidal.    Thomas T. Eckert   It is perfectly clear, in retrospect, that the government had contingency plans to have Powell 'suicided' if necessary.   On May 1, 1865, newly-installed President Andrew Johnson ordered that the eight alleged conspirators face a nine-man military tribunal. The members of that tribunal – seven generals and two colonels – were all handpicked by Stanton. All but a couple were unknown to the public and none of them knew anything about the so-called 'rule of law' or about evidentiary or procedural rules. That didn't prove to be a problem though – they just made up the tribunal rules as they went along.   As Vaughan Shelton wrote back in 1965, "All but one or two were nearly as unknown then as they are now. There was not a noteworthy war record in the whole group. In fact the two whose names might be recognized by the average reader – Major General David Hunter, presiding officer, and Major General Lew Wallace (later author of Ben Hur) – had attained rank by political connections, and their names had been associated with military defeats throughout the four-year contest. All appeared to be qualified largely by their prejudices, total ignorance of the law, and subservience to the will of the prosecutors. It was common talk in Washington that the military commission was assembled for the purpose of convicting the accused persons – not to weigh the merits of their cases."   Besides being completely unqualified to sit in judgment of the accused, the panel had something else in common, as various photographs reveal: many of them, maybe all of them, were Freemasons. As were the prosecutors. And at least some of the defense attorneys. And Edwin Stanton. And Lafayette Baker. And John Wilkes Booth. And seemingly just about everyone else who played a prominent role in the assassination conspiracy and cover-up. And many of the generals who directed the action on the battlefields of the Civil War. On both sides.     Confederate General Albert Pike     Seated on the panel were Major General David "Black Dave" Hunter, Brigadier General Albion Parris Howe, Lieutenant Colonel David Ramsey Clendenin, Brigadier General Thomas Maley Harris, Brevet Brigadier General James Adams Ekin, Major General Lew Wallace, Brevet Colonel Charles Henry Tompkins, Brigadier General Robert Sanford Foster, and Brevet Major General August Valentine Kautz. The lead prosecutor was Brigadier General Joseph Holt, then the Judge Advocate General of the United States Army and a former Secretary of War. Joining him as Special Judge Advocates were John Armor Bingham, a US Representative from Ohio and a future US Ambassador to Japan, and Brevet Brigadier General Henry Lawrence Burnett. Both Bingham and Burnett were appointed, of course, by Edwin Stanton.      Pretty Masons all in a row: the nine tribunal members and three prosecutors   Shockingly enough, the assembled panel of 'judges' showed extreme bias throughout the seven-week proceedings. That bias was revealed, for example, by the jurists' handling of objections. The defense attorneys, most of whom appear to have actually been working for the state, lodged only twelve objections, all of which were overruled. Prosecutors, on the other hand, voiced fifty-four objections, fifty-one of which were sustained.   The prisoners were arraigned on May 10, 1865, just one day after the charges against them had been read (Holt wanted those charges withheld from the press and public). Two days later, on May 12, testimony began. The defendants had been given just three days to obtain legal counsel, which they had to do while being quite literally muzzled. Ultimately assembled for the defense were Captain William Doster, Frederick Stone, Thomas Ewing, Jr., Walter Smith Cox, and Colonel Frederick Aiken.   Three members of that group appear to have been richly rewarded for their 'service' to country. Just two years after the 'trial,' Stone became a US Representative from Maryland. Ewing also joined the US Congress, representing a district in Ohio. Cox became a federal judge and, perhaps quite tellingly, presided at the trial of alleged presidential assassin Charles Guiteau just a couple years after being seated.     Defense attorney Frederick Stone   Aiken, who represented Mary Surratt after the curious withdrawal of her first attorney, Reverdy Johnson – who was a sitting US Senator, a former US Attorney General, and a future Minister to the UK – may have actually been legitimately working on behalf of his client. Notably, he faced a much different fate after the trial concluded than did Stone, Ewing and Cox. Within a year, Aiken's law practice had imploded and he had been arrested for bouncing a check. He died in 1878 at the relatively young age of forty-six and was buried in an unmarked grave.   Very little else is known about the young defense attorney. As his Wikipedia page notes, "Information on Aiken's early life is largely unknown; his date of birth, city of birth, and even his full name varies depending on source." And "like his birth records, his war service also remains largely unknown." Even less appears to be known about the ethereal William Doster, who was tasked with defending both Atzerodt and Powell, and who also may not have been thoroughly co-opted.   The reality though is that no defense attorney, no matter how devoted or how skilled, could have saved any of the defendants from their fates. All that was required for conviction was a simple majority of five votes – five votes from a nine-man panel predisposed to convict before the trial even began. Only one additional vote was required to impose the death penalty. And the tribunal's pronouncements would be final; there would be no appeals allowed. All of that, of course, was brazenly unconstitutional.       Union General George McClellan   Stanton's War Department did not just put the eight defendants on trial; the entire Confederacy was put on trial in a shameless attempt to inflame public opinion and inspire bloodlust. As Shelton noted, witnesses told tales of "Plots to burn northern cities, start epidemics, instigate riots" and other nefarious deeds, including poisoning public water supplies, destroying historical buildings, and starving Union POWs. Most of these alleged plots were never actually carried out. And even if they had been, none of that had any relevance at all as to the guilt or innocence of the defendants and would not have been allowed into evidence in any legitimate court proceedings.   Another problem with the introduction of such testimony is that most of the 'witnesses' who delivered it didn't actually exist. One such witness who testified as "Sanford Conover," for example, was actually Charles Dunham, who also used the alias "James Watson Wallace." It was later revealed that Dunham had run what was dubbed a "school for perjured witnesses" at the National Hotel, where he had coached others on how to properly deliver their perjured testimony. Dunham soon found himself in prison after being convicted for both perjury and suborning perjury.   One of those receiving schooling was "Richard Montgomery," who was actually James Thompson, a burglar from New York with a long criminal record. Appearing as "Henry Van Steinacker" was Hans Von Winklestein, a prison inmate who gained his release shortly after testifying. A Canadian presented to the court as "Dr." James Merritt was denounced by his own government as a fraud and a quack. And so on.     Left to right: Thomas Harris, David Hunter, August Kautz, Albion Howe, Lew Wallace, and John Bingham   Defense attorney Doster, whose vehement objection to the introduction of the irrelevant, inflammatory testimony was overruled, would later claim that some of the other prosecution witnesses were actually NDP detectives paid by the government for their testimony. And it would later be revealed that NDP chief Lafayette Baker's order to his underlings instructed them to "extort confessions and procure testimony to establish the conspiracy … by promises, rewards, threats, deceit, force, or any other effectual means."   Many of the state's witnesses were in fact paid handsomely for their testimony. Merritt, for example, collected a $6,000 paycheck, the equivalent of more than $150,000 today. Not bad for a day's work.   There were numerous other irregularities in 1865's version of The Trial of the Century. Major Henry Rathbone, as we have already seen, delivered a bizarrely verbatim recital of his deposition testimony. For those who have forgotten, here's another little taste of Rathbone's version of events, first from his deposition on April 17, 1865, and then from his testimony before the tribunal one month later, on May 15, 1865.   "Deponent then turned to the President; his position was not changed; his head was slightly bent forward, and his eyes were closed. Deponent saw that he was unconscious, and supposing him mortally wounded, rushed to the door for the purpose of calling medical aid. On reaching the outer door of the passageway, as above described, deponent found it barred by a heavy piece of plank, one end of which was secured in the wall … This wedge, or bar, was about four feet from the floor. Persons upon the outside were beating against the door for the purpose of entering. Deponent removed the bar, and the door was opened …"   "I then turned to the President. His position was not changed: his head was slightly bent forward, and his eyes were closed. I saw that he was unconscious, and, supposing him mortally wounded, rushed to the door for the purpose of calling medical aid. On reaching the outer door of the passageway, I found it barred by a heavy piece of plank, one end of which was secured in the wall … This wedge or bar, was about four feet from the floor. Persons upon the outside were beating against the door for the purpose of entering. I removed the bar, and the door was opened …"     Union General William Tecumseh Sherman   Rathbone was clearly 'reading' his testimony from a memorized script, which raises the obvious question of: why? Why was Rathbone so thoroughly rehearsed that he was able to recite his deposition testimony virtually verbatim, without even minor variations in the wording?   Historians, needless to say, have never addressed that question. Another question that has never been addressed is why the photo of John Wilkes Booth that was used throughout the trial wasn't actually of John Wilkes Booth; it was instead an image of his brother, Edwin Booth. What that means, of course, is that every witness who identified Booth as the man they had seen or heard discussing, carrying out, or fleeing from the assassination, was actually identifying Edwin Booth as the culprit. And again, the obvious question that is raised, but that has never been asked or answered, is: why?   In a bold move, defense counsel Doster subpoenaed sitting President Andrew Johnson to appear as a witness, but Johnson cavalierly ignored the summons, with no legal repercussions. Numerous other witnesses who should have been called were strangely absent from the proceedings, like Mary Todd Lincoln and Clara Harris, both of whom were eyewitnesses to the assassination of Lincoln. And William Seward, Frederick Seward, Fanny Seward, Frances Seward, and Emerick Hansell, all of whom were allegedly eyewitnesses to the supposed bloodbath at the Seward home.   The three witnesses who did testify about the alleged attack at the Seward residence – William Bell, George Robinson and Augustus Seward – presented wildly contradictory and problematic accounts, made all the more problematic by the fact that, according to all the early reports, Augustus Seward wasn't actually at the home at the time of the alleged attack.     Confederate General Robert E. Lee with various other Confederate generals in 1869   It will probably come as a shock to no one that in 1865 America, the testimony of a black man carried considerably less weight than the testimony of a white man, especially when the white men in question were the Secretary of State, an Assistant Secretary of State, and a US State Department courier. Why then did the state leave William Seward, Frederick Seward and Emerick Hansell (along with three of the Seward women) on the sidelines while calling to the stand two black servants – two men who were, if we're being honest here, just a step above slaves in the social hierarchy of the time?   According to reports, there were as many as eight eyewitnesses to the carnage at the Seward mansion – six of them white and five of them members of the Seward family. But the only two of the eight called were a black 'houseboy' who was unable to give his age when asked in court, and a black nurse. The only member of the Seward family who was called was the one who wasn't actually home and therefore didn't witness anything.        Defense attorney Thomas Ewing, Jr.   As previously stated, the first arrivals to the house after the alleged attack were Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, and Surgeon General Joseph Barnes. Arriving shortly after them was Assistant Secretary of War Thomas Eckert, who would soon be serving as Lewis Powell's prison guard. Unanswered, of course, is the question of why these four prominent individuals converged on the Seward house before anyone else arrived. And why they didn't instead head immediately to Ford's Theater, where the president lay near death.   No mention was made by any of them of encountering Major Augustus Seward that evening. And testimony at the tribunal also indicated that Augustus was not at home the evening of April 14. And yet, nevertheless, he was presented to the courtroom and to the public as the principal eyewitness to the alleged carnage. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part VII by Dave McGowan | May 7, 2014 According to the official story, Powell came calling at the Seward home the night of April 14 under the guise of delivering medicine for the ailing William Seward. He was greeted by houseboy Bell, whom he allegedly brushed past while insisting that he was to hand-deliver the medications. Powell was then confronted at the top of the stairs by Frederick Seward, who insisted that Powell leave the package with him and not bother the sleeping Secretary of State. Powell then turned to leave, took a few steps down the stairs, and then pulled a gun and attempted to shoot Frederick. When the gun failed to fire, he supposedly bum-rushed Frederick and brutally beat him nearly to death.   According to Bill O'Reilly's overwrought version of events, "The two men grapple as Powell leaps up onto the landing and then uses the butt of his gun to pistol-whip Frederick. Finally, Frederick Seward is knocked unconscious. His body makes a horrible thud as he collapses to the floor, his skull shattered in two places, gray matter trickling out through the gashes, blood streaming down his face."   During that encounter, Fanny Seward supposedly looked out from her father's room and in doing so conveniently gave away William Seward's location. So after incapacitating Frederick, Powell next burst into William Seward's room and encountered George Robinson, whom he grappled with before beginning to brutally slash away at Seward. At that time, Augustus Seward, who had been awakened by all the commotion, allegedly entered the room and began grappling with Powell. Powell though got the best of him as well and then bolted out of the room and down the stairs. In most versions of the story, there is no further mention of Fanny Seward, who was supposedly in her father's room throughout the ordeal.   On his way out of the house, Powell allegedly encountered Hansell, who had just arrived at the home. Hansell was supposedly brutally attacked and left for dead just inside the entrance to the home. Powell then exited the residence and rode off into the night. And that, in a nutshell, is the official story of how one man was allegedly able to leave at least five people mortally wounded while walking away without a scratch.      Frederick Seward, showing the severe scarring from his alleged beating   The witnesses who appeared before the military tribunal, however, had a very hard time keeping the details of that story straight. Here is a portion of Robinson's testimony, delivered on May 19, 1865: "The first I saw of [Powell] I heard a scuffling in the hall; I opened the door to see what the trouble was; as I opened the door he stood close up to it; as soon as it was opened wide enough he struck me and knocked me partially down and then rushed up to the bed of Mr. Seward, struck him and maimed him; as soon as I could get on my feet I endeavored to haul him off the bed and he turned on me; in the scuffle there was a man come into the room who clutched him; between the two of us we got him to the door, or by the door, when he clinched his hand around my neck, knocked me down, broke away from the other man and rushed down stairs."   Amazingly enough, neither the prosecutors nor the defense attorneys bothered to ask him who this other mystery man was. Clearly though it wasn't Augustus Seward, who Robinson, a household servant, would certainly have recognized. When asked specifically whether he saw Powell's alleged "encounter with Major Seward," Robinson replied that he "did not see that." When asked about Frederick Seward, he responded as follows: "I did not see Mr. Frederick Seward around at all." So George Robinson did not see the guy who was supposedly lying in a bloody heap just outside the door to William Seward's room. He also didn't see the guy who supposedly assisted him with trying to subdue Powell. And he didn't see, or at least didn't mention, Fanny Seward. But he did see some mysterious, unidentified stranger.   When later asked, "Where was [Frederick] when [Powell] came out [of Seward's room]?", his unexpected response was: "The first I saw of Mr. Frederick was in the room standing up; he had come inside the door." So it appears that the guy who was lying near death somehow magically got up and strolled into the room, hopefully after pushing the gray matter back into his shattered skull.     The prosecution team: one of Burnett's duties was to oversee the rewriting of the trial transcript to remove various contradictions and inconsistencies   Robinson also told the court that he never heard Powell utter a sound throughout the ordeal. Judge Advocate Holt, sounding a bit incredulous and clearly not getting the answers he wanted, asked the witness this question: "You say that this man, during the whole of this bloody work, made no remark at all; that he said nothing?" Robinson responded with: "I did not hear him make any remark."   Let's now listen in to some of Augustus Seward's testimony, because this is where it really gets interesting: "I retired to bed about 7 o'clock on the night of the 14th, with the understanding that I would be called at 11 o'clock, to sit up with my father; I very shortly fell asleep, and so remained until wakened by the screams of my sister; I jumped out of bed and ran into my father's room in my shirt and drawers; the gas in the room had been shut down rather low, and I saw what appeared to be two men, one trying to hold the other; my first impression was that my father had become delirious, and that the nurse was trying to hold him. I went up and took hold of him, but saw at once from his size and the struggle that it was not my father; it then struck me that the nurse had become delirious and was striking about the room at random; knowing the delicate state of my father's health, I endeavored to shove the person I had hold of to the door, with the intention of putting him out of his room; while I was pushing him he struck me five or six times over the head with whatever he had in his left hand; I supposed it at the time to be a bottle or decanter he had seized from the table; during this time he repeated with an intensely strong voice-'I am mad, I am mad;' on reaching the hall he gave a sudden turn and breaking away from me, disappeared down stairs."   You got all that straight? Augustus first mistook Powell – a strapping, physically fit, 20-year-old man – for his frail, 63-year-old, bedridden father. Following that, he next mistook Powell, a decidedly fair-skinned Caucasian lad, for his father's black nurse. He also completely failed to notice that Robinson was right alongside him grappling with Powell. And he failed to notice that his sister was in the room. And he distinctly heard Powell loudly proclaiming himself to be mad, even though Robinson, also in the room, didn't hear Powell utter a word.   Augustus was also asked about his brother Frederick, to which he responded: "I never saw anything of my brother the whole time." In other words, he didn't notice that he had to practically step over his brother's prone, bloody body to get to his father's room. And he apparently wasn't paying attention when Frederick stood up and walked into that room.     It's Booth's photograph – just not the right Booth   Coupled with the conflicting testimony of Seward and Robinson, there is the enduring mystery surrounding Emerick Hansell. According to the official version of events, Hansell was left lying nearly lifeless just inside the front door of the home. But Dr. T.S. Verdi, the Seward family physician, testified that he "found Mr. Hansell, a messenger of the State Department, lying on a bed, wounded by a cut in the side some two and a half inches deep." He went on to say that that bed was in a third-floor bedroom! Needless to say, no explanation was offered as to how and why Hansell could have ended up there. On that particular night, apparently, it was not uncommon for mortally wounded guys to get up all by themselves and wander around the Seward manor.   It seems pretty obvious that of all the witnesses to testify before the tribunal, none were more important to securing convictions than those who claimed to have witnessed the crimes actually being committed. It seems more than a bit odd then that the state bypassed both the First Lady and a senator's daughter in favor of an otherwise obscure future murderer named Henry Rathbone, who was clearly reading from a script written by unseen others. And it also seems more than a little odd that the state also left no fewer than five members of the Seward household and a State Department courier sitting on the sidelines in favor of two lowly household servants and a member of the Seward family who, by all accounts other than his own, wasn't even in the home that night.   It is on the shoulders of those four men – Augustus Seward, William Bell, George Robinson, and Henry Rathbone, all of whom are all but forgotten and all of whom presented obviously perjured testimony – that the official story of what happened on the evening of April 14, 1865 in the presidential box at Ford's Theater and at the Seward home has now rested for 149 years.     Defense attorney William Doster   As for Bell, his testimony was problematic as well: "When [Powell] came he rang the bell and I went to the door, and this man came in; he had a little package in his hand, and said it was medicine from Dr. Verdi; he said he was sent by Dr. Verdi with particular directions how he was to take the medicine, and he said he must go up; I told him he could not go up … he said that would not do, and I started to go up, and finding he would go up I started past him and went up the stairs before him … I noticed that his step was very heavy, and I asked him not to walk so heavy, he would disturb Mr. Seward; he met Mr. Frederick Seward on the steps outside the door, and had some conversation with him in the hall."   After describing a lengthy argument between Powell and Frederick Seward, Bell testified that Powell "started toward the steps as if to go down, and I started to go down before him; I had gone about three steps, and turned around, saying 'don't walk so heavy;' by the time I had turned round he jumped back and struck Mr. Frederick Seward, and by the time I had turned clear around, Mr. Frederick Seward had fallen, and thrown up his hands, then I ran downstairs and called 'murder;' I went to the front door and cried murder; then I ran down to General Auger's headquarters at the corner."   Finding no one there, Bell ran back to the house in time to see Powell run out and get on his horse. Asked if he saw "with what [Powell] struck Mr. Fred. Seward," Bell responded that "it appeared to be round and wound with velvet; I took it to be a knife afterwards." For the record, it was actually supposed to be a gun.   Probably seeking to avoid perjuring himself too brazenly, Bell adopted the "I didn't see nothing" approach. Powell, acting with superhuman strength and speed, managed to get to and subdue Frederick Seward before Bell could even turn around – after which Bell left the house, missing the rest of the carnage and returning just in time to witness Powell's escape.   One wonders though how Emerick Hansell, the Steven Parent of this story (look it up), somehow managed to not see or hear Bell's frantic flight and shouts of "murder" as he approached the Seward house that night. And why no patrols were near enough to respond to his cries. And exactly how long it took William Bell to turn "clear around." In any event, we know that we can rule Bell out as being the mystery man who assisted George Robinson.     Union General Ambrose Burnside   Amazingly enough, after nearly a century-and-a-half, no one has ever seriously questioned the official narrative of what exactly happened that night. There have been just a relative handful of books written that question various aspects of the assassination, such as whether there were other, unseen conspirators, and whether John Wilkes Booth really was gunned down at Garrett's barn, but even the authors of those books have unquestioningly accepted that what the state says went down in that presidential box and in the Seward home really did happen.   But why? On what basis should we blindly accept those aspects of the official story? Why should we believe a guy who when called upon three times to tell his story under oath, told that story in the exact same words all three times? And why should we believe two guys who supposedly stood side-by-side to fight off an intruder without either noticing the other's presence? And who both somehow failed to notice the allegedly mortally wounded Frederick Seward lying right outside the door? And why should we believe a guy who absurdly claimed that he confused a young, physically fit Lewis Powell for his own invalid, aging father, and then claimed to have confused the very same Lewis Powell with the shorter, older, and much darker George Robinson?   How is it possible that no one has questioned any of that? Do I have to fucking do everything around here?   There were, needless to say, other irregularities in what passed for a trial, including the wholesale suppression of exculpatory evidence. And the introduction of brazenly manufactured evidence, like a supposed cipher letter, also introduced into evidence at John Surratt's trial, that had allegedly been retrieved from a river but that clearly had never been in the water.    Confederate General Robert E. Lee, with son   To briefly recap then, all of the following were distinguishing characteristics of the 'trial' of the conspirators: The defendants were informed of the charges against them just 72 hours before the trial began, depriving them of the ability to put together an effective defense. The defendants, all civilians, were subjected to military justice. The defendants were denied their right to individual trials. The defendants were not allowed to speak in their own defense. The state willfully withheld the list of prosecution witnesses, denying the defendants their right to know the nature of the testimony they would be defending themselves against. The state freely introduced inflammatory, prejudicial testimony. The state made extensive use of witnesses testifying under assumed identities. The state made extensive use of paid witnesses. The defendants were prohibited from privately consulting with their attorneys. The state was not shy about suppressing exculpatory evidence. The state was also not shy about introducing manufactured evidence. The state allowed subpoenaed defense witnesses to ignore those subpoenas. Only a simple majority was required to convict, and only a 2/3 majority was required to impose the death penalty. And yet, through seven weeks of the most extreme prosecutorial misconduct imaginable, the entire defense team raised only twelve objections. They should have raised that many just during the first hour of the first day of the proceedings. If not sooner.   Union General John Pope   On June 29, 1865, the tribunal members met in a secret session to begin reviewing the evidence. It didn't take them long to find all the defendants guilty. On July 5, President Johnson approved all the sentences handed down by the commissioners, including the death sentence for Mary Surratt. The very next day, four of the prisoners were informed that they would hang in less than 24 hours.   Mary Surratt's spiritual advisers were denied access to her until they gave their assurances that they would not proclaim their belief in her innocence. Even then, they were allowed access only for a few hours. All of the prisoners were guarded very closely during their final hours by Thomas Eckert, Lafayette Baker, and a number of his thuggish detectives. Some of the gathered witnesses described the condemned prisoners as looking drugged as they were led to the gallows by Baker's men.   More than a thousand soldiers ringed the prison walls to keep protestors at bay. Just after 1:30 PM on the afternoon of July 7, 1865, four soldiers kicked away the posts that were temporarily supporting the floor of the gallows and Mary Surratt, Lewis Thornton Powell, David Herold, and George Adzerodt fell to their deaths.   Meanwhile, military personnel escorted Dr. Samuel Mudd, Michael O'Laughlin, Ed Spangler, and Samuel Arnold to a remote, isolated, desolate facility known as Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas off the coast of Florida. Photos reveal that what was once undoubtedly a gorgeous tropical atoll had been converted by the US military into a veritable hell on Earth. The facility reportedly featured underground torture cells and dungeons. All four prisoners were held in solitary confinement in conditions so appalling that one of them, Michael O'Laughlin, was dead within two years.     Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas   And that, dear readers, is how 'justice' was meted out to the eight alleged accomplices of John Wilkes Booth. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part VIII by Dave McGowan | Aug 25, 2014  In my continuing quest to gain some kind of understanding of exactly what happened on the night of April 14, 1865, I have worked my way through several more rather tedious treatments of the Lincoln assassination, including a relatively new tome by Leonard Guttridge and Ray Neff (Dark Union, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003) that adds several new layers of complexity to the fabled attack on Secretary of State William Seward. And by "new layers of complexity," I really mean new layers of absurdity.   One thing we learn from the authors is that the "house where the Sewards lived was a thirty-room mansion overlooking Lafayette Square." A three-story, thirty-room mansion. But like virtually everyone else who has written about the alleged attack at the Seward home, the authors offer little commentary on how Lewis Powell, who by all accounts had never been in the home, could have so easily navigated his way through it.   The authors also inform us that, "This was no assassin's work. Seward's body was otherwise unscathed. The knife struck nowhere near the heart or any other vital organ. It was not aimed at the windpipe. It targeted Seward's face – in particular, his ligatured jaw." In other words, none of the wounds that Seward allegedly sustained that night were inconsistent with the injuries he was known to have suffered as a result of the carriage accident. It is, I have to say, a rather remarkable 'coincidence' that Powell's knife struck only where Seward was previously injured.   Contradicting virtually everything else that has been written about the alleged attempted assassination of Seward, Guttridge and Neff also claim that "Two male nurses had been assigned to the secretary, and two State Department messengers, each armed with a Colt revolver, were working shifts as Seward's bodyguard. That Good Friday evening one of the messengers, Emerick Hansell, reached Seward's home shortly after nine in the evening … After a meal in the kitchen, he settled himself in an alcove on the third floor, where most of the family bedrooms were located."   So now we find that, in addition to two active-duty military personnel (George Robinson and Augustus Seward) and two other able-bodied men (William Bell and Frederick Seward) being present in the home, William Seward actually had an armed guard stationed right down the hall from his room – and yet Powell was still able to locate, get to, and brutally attack his target. Well done, Mr. Powell!   According to Guttridge and Neff, Hansell didn't enter into the melee until after William Seward had been attacked and Powell was grappling with Robinson: "Then another figure plunged into the room. It wasn't Fred. He had already staggered to his bedroom, beaten nearly senseless. The new arrival was Emerick Hansell … He heard Robinson cry, 'Hansey, help me.'"     The always photogenic Lewis Powell   In case anyone missed any of that, let's run through the scenario presented by Neff and Guttridge: William Seward had an armed guard stationed just down the hall from his room. We have no idea why he had an armed guard since the President didn't even have one, but we'll just play along and say that he had one. That guard though didn't respond when Powell came calling at the door, forcing his way in. He didn't respond when Powell argued with Bell and pushed past him. He didn't respond when Powell "walked heavy" up two flights of stairs. He didn't respond when Frederick [Seward] stood on the landing loudly arguing with Powell. He didn't respond when Powell then physically attacked Frederick, leaving him for dead (or to wander off to his bedroom, or to get up and wander into his father's room). He didn't respond when William Bell ran from the house screaming "murder!" He didn't respond when Powell forced his way into William Seward's room. He didn't respond when Powell attacked first Robinson and then Seward. No, it wasn't until Powell was fighting his way out of the bedroom that Hansell decided to respond. And even then, despite the fact that Powell had nearly killed three people, including the guy that Hansell was assigned to protect, he opted not to use his weapon, choosing instead to become another casualty.   Does all of that make perfect sense to everyone?   If so, then this infinitely fascinating bit of assassination trivia should make perfect sense as well: "The Seward episode was further complicated by a coincidence. Within twenty-four hours of the Good Friday attack, newspapers reported that Emerick Hansell, the State Department messenger on protective duty and knifed on the third floor, had died of his wounds. The obituaries were all but correct. There were two men named Emerick Hansell. One had indeed succumbed in Washington, but he was a farrier at the Union cavalry depot at Giesboro at the edge of the city. His widow was informed that he was kicked in the head while shoeing a horse. He lingered a week, to die just eight hours after the stabbing of his namesake."   Call me a skeptic if you will, but I am finding it very difficult to believe that that was a 'coincidence.' Truth be told, I'm finding it almost impossible to believe that there were two guys named Emerick Hansell living in Washington, DCin 1865, let alone that one of them died within hours of the other being brutally attacked. If such reports did indeed circulate, then they had to be deliberately false reports. And those false reports led to a very predictable outcome:   "The farrier's death had the effect of stilling questions that only the other Hansell might have answered. Many years would pass before the State Department's messenger, then in pensioned retirement following a resumed career on the federal payroll, would give his story under strict guarantees of confidentiality. His recollection then was that he had been the third man on the landing, rushing to Private Robinson's aid, convinced that the man he and the soldier grappled with was Major Augustus Seward, the secretary's troubled son."   It is obvious from this passage that Guttridge and Neff based their account of the alleged attack at the Seward residence on Hansell's belated, off-the-record recollections. The authors appear to be unaware that Hansell's story is wildly at odds with the accounts of other supposed witnesses, or perhaps they just don't care.     The Seward family home in Washington, DC   We now have testimony from three guys claiming to have been in William Seward's bedroom and to have acted in his defense. One of them, Augustus Seward, had no one assisting him and he thought he was fighting against either his father or his father's nurse. Another of them, Emerick Hansell, was assisted only by Robinson and thought he was grappling with Augustus Seward. The third, George Robinson, thought that he was fighting with a guy he described to a newspaper reporter as having "light sandy hair, whiskers and moustache." And he, of course, thought that he was assisted by someone who was never identified.   None of the three saw Frederick Seward lying unconscious outside William Seward's room, but Robinson did see him enter the room. None of them made any mention of the presence of Fanny Seward, though her belatedly released statement would hold that she was in the room as well. None of them saw Frances or Anna Seward either, though you would think they would have come to see what all the commotion was about at some point. Though Powell and Hansell were both supposedly packing heat, and Augustus Seward's testimony at trial indicated that he retrieved a gun as well, not a single shot was fired that night at the Seward mansion. After being awakened by the commotion, which necessarily would have included Bell's shouts of murder, Major Seward nevertheless opted to initially respond without a weapon. Hansell apparently responded without his weapon as well. And Bell, ignoring the fact that Seward already had an armed guard and a militarily trained and armed son, felt the need to run down the street seeking outside help.   It's hard to imagine a more ridiculously contradictory set of stories. Two of the 'witnesses' essentially identified each other as the assailant, and the third offered up a description that did not in any way fit the always clean-shaven Lewis Powell. To say that there was reasonable doubt in this case would be a serious understatement, but the tribunal had no problem convicting Powell and sentencing him to death (there were even, as previously stated, contingency plans to have him executed before the trial even concluded).   But then again, Doster did wrap up his 'defense' of Powell by delivering a closing argument that began as follows: "May it please the court: There are three things in the case of the prisoner, Powell, which are admitted beyond civil or dispute: (1) That he is the person who attempted to take the life of the Secretary of State. (2) That he is not within the medical definition of insanity. (3) That he believed what he did was right and justifiable. The question of his identity and the question of his sanity are, therefore, settled, and among the things of the past." With a defense like that, how could he lose?     Lewis Powell's empty gravesite   Perhaps James Swanson, who appears to fancy himself to be the reigning expert on the Lincoln assassination, can clear up the confusion surrounding what exactly happened at the Seward manor. In his bestselling Manhunt: The Twelve-Day Chase for Lincoln's Killer (William Morrow, 2006) Swanson spins a uniquely preposterous account of the alleged attack. Like other self-styled historians, he handpicks facts from the accounts of various alleged participants while conveniently leaving out all the contradictory elements of those accounts.   One thing that Swanson does get right in his overly wordy account is an acknowledgement that Powell's alleged assignment would have been a very difficult one: "This was a difficult mission even for a man like Powell, a battle-hardened and extremely strong ex-Confederate soldier. Powell had three problems. First, how could he get inside Seward's house? … Once inside, it was Powell's job to track down Secretary Seward in the sprawling, three-story mansion … Powell faced a third challenge: he did not know how many occupants … were on the premises."   In Swanson's telling of the tale, on the night of April 14, 1865, "Fanny [Seward] watched over her father and listened to the sights and sounds of the never-ending celebrations in the streets." Of primary interest here is the mention of the "never-ending celebrations." General Lee had just surrendered to General Grant, the Civil War was all but over, and the nation's capitol was in a celebratory mood. Just the night before, public buildings and private homes across the city were lit up with candles and gaslights while fireworks exploded overhead, providing, by all accounts, a uniquely awe-inspiring view of the city.   The next day, April 14, was a Friday and those celebrations continued well into the night, with tens of thousands of people taking to the streets to join in the revelry. The Seward mansion sat, as previously noted, right across the street from Lafayette Square, which surely would have been filled that night with a sizable portion of that mass of humanity. Keep that in mind as we work our way through Swanson's highly dubious account.   "Around 10:00 P.M.," according to Swanson, Fanny Seward "put down her book, Legends of Charlemagne, turned down the gaslights, and, along with Sergeant George Robinson, a wounded veteran now serving as an army nurse, kept watch over her recovering father." For the record, Robinson was not yet a sergeant, which is one of many factual inaccuracies that can be found throughout Swanson's supposedly authoritative books.   Shortly after Fanny had lowered the lights, Lewis Powell approached the front door of the home and "rang the bell … [and] William Bell, a nineteen-year-old black servant, hurried to answer the door." Amazingly, Swanson knows what William's age was at the time even though Bell himself was unable to provide that information when asked at trial! In any event, an argument ensued between Powell and Bell and, "For five minutes, the assassin and the servant bickered about whether Powell would leave the medicine with Bell."   Powell next pushed past Bell and proceeded up the stairs, where, as we know, he encountered Fred Seward and argued with him as well. After appearing to lose the argument, Powell began to retreat down the stairs but then quickly pivoted and attempted to shoot Fred Seward. When the gun failed to fire, "Powell raised the pistol high in the air and brought down a crushing blow to Seward's head. He hit him so hard that he broke the pistol's steel ramrod, jamming the cylinder and making it impossible to fire again."   Broke the steel ramrod?! No shit? I could see possibly bending it, but how do you "break" a steel ramrod? Had Powell or anyone else hit Seward with that kind of force, and then delivered a few more equally devastating blows, he would certainly have killed him. But according to Swanson, Powell didn't even knock him down (directly contradicting, of course, Bell's sworn testimony at trial): "Powell moved lightning fast. He shoved Fred aside and struck Robinson in the forehead hard with the knife." Swanson later informs us that Fred remained conscious and on his feet throughout the ordeal, though he mostly just "wandered around the house like a zombie, babbling the same phrase, 'It is … it is,' over and over unable to complete the thought."   Meanwhile, "The assassin pushed past the reeling sergeant and the waiflike girl blocking his path and sprinted to the bed" where the ailing William Seward lay helpless. According to Swanson, the only thing that saved Seward's life was Powell's poor aim, which resulted in him completely missing the motionless secretary of state with his first two knife thrusts. By the time he connected, Robinson had rejoined the fight and was attempting to pull Powell away from Seward. At about that time, "Fanny … screamed, not once, but in a ceaseless, howling, and terrifying wail that woke her brother Augustus, or 'Gus,' who was asleep in a room nearby. Fanny then opened a window and screamed to the street below."   So now, in addition to Bell running down the street screaming "murder," we have Fanny Seward screaming out an open window. And yet still, with celebrants swarming around the capitol, no one was able to respond in time to even see Powell, let alone try to stop him! Sounds perfectly reasonable to me. As does the fact that "Gus" was able to sleep through the knock on the door, the argument between Bell and Powell, Powell's noisy ascent of the stairs, Powell's argument with Frederick, Powell's attack on Frederick, Powell forcing his way into William Seward's room, Powell's attack on Robinson, Powell's attack on William Seward, and all the screaming that all the victims would undoubtedly have been doing as they were being viciously attacked. Old Gus was a pretty sound sleeper, I guess.   According to Swanson, Augustus Seward and George Robinson then jointly battled Powell, which we already know directly contradicts the sworn testimony of both of them. That fight supposedly spilled over into the hallway outside Seward's room. At that time, "Secretary Seward's wife, alarmed by Fanny's screams, emerged from her third-floor, back bedroom in time to witness the climax of the hallway struggle between Powell and her son Gus. Uncomprehending, she assumed that her husband had become delirious and was running amok. Fred's wife, Anna, rushed to the scene …"   Apparently Frances and Anna Seward slept even more soundly than Augustus. With their arrival though, Powell was outnumbered six to one, and that didn't even include Hansell, who, according to Swanson, decided that his best bet was to get the hell out of Dodge: "On [Powell's] way out, he caught up with Emerick Hansell, who was running down the staircase, trying to stay ahead of the assassin. The State Department messenger, on duty at Seward's home, was fleeing rather than joining the battle."   Of course he was. That's probably why we all remember him being lynched, which is undoubtedly what would have happened if Swanson's tall tale was true. I guess Hansell slept through most of the ordeal as well, foolishly choosing to flee at the same time as Powell. You'd think he would have just stayed wherever it was that he was hiding. Or run sooner. Those would have been safer options. But then again, since he had a gun and was backed up by at least six people, and the assailant was unarmed, maybe he should have just done his job. That way, he wouldn't have had to haul his gravely wounded body up two flights of stairs to get into bed before the doctor got there.   It is more than a little odd, I must say, that both Augustus Seward and Frances Seward claimed to initially believe that the 'intruder' was actually William Seward "running amok." Was that a common thing for the secretary of state to do? Even when everyone knew that he was confined to bed and completely immobile?   Mr. Robinson, by the way, had a change of heart after telling a reporter about the intruder with "light sandy hair, whiskers and moustache." By the time the trial rolled around just a few weeks later, Robinson was sure that Powell was the assailant. That may have been due to the fact that he had received a gold medal, $5,000 in cash, and a promotion. And he later was awarded the knife allegedly used by Powell in the attack.     This is said to be the only known remains of Lewis Powell   It is impossible for me to believe that the alleged events at the Seward home ever took place. All the available evidence overwhelmingly suggests that it was an entirely manufactured affair. Fanny and Frances Seward, as previously discussed, did not live long after the alleged attack. Neither, of course, did Lewis Powell. William and Frederick Seward chose to never speak publicly about the alleged incident. Augustus Seward, George Robinson, William Bell, and (belatedly) Emerick Hansell gave wildly conflicting accounts. And as mainstream historians continue to work diligently to bend the conflicting accounts into some kind of believable storyline, the story just gets more and more ridiculous.   The more deeply immersed in this I become, the more I am convinced that the key to understanding the Lincoln assassination may be in understanding what didn't happen at the Seward residence. For if the alleged parallel attack on the Sewards never took place, then clearly there was much more to the events of April 14, 1865 than the activities of John Wilkes Booth and a ragtag band of conspirators.   Before wrapping up, let's take a look at one final curiosity surrounding the alleged attack on the Seward family: in all the accounts that I have read – and I have now worked my way through fourteen books chronicling the Lincoln assassination – it is either stated or implied that Powell (and Bell) ascended just one flight of stairs to get to William Seward's bedroom, and descended just one flight to exit the house. But Seward's bedroom was on the third floor of the home, which meant that reaching him (and Frederick and the rest of the cast) would have required first ascending one flight of stairs, then crossing a second-floor landing, and then ascending a second flight of stairs.   That curious fact seems to have remained deliberately obscured for many, many years now. And it's not hard to figure out why, for if that fact is pointed out, it raises the very obvious question of exactly how Powell would have known to bypass the home's second floor and proceed directly to the third. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong: Part IX by Dave McGowan | Oct 21, 2014 If there is anything we can be certain about in regards to the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, it is that we will never know what really happened in the presidential box at Ford's Theatre at approximately 10:15 PM on the night of April 14, 1865.   In addition to the guy who made a hasty exit across the stage and out the back door, and the guy who caught a bullet to the head and never regained consciousness, there were, depending upon which version of events one chooses to believe, either three or four eyewitnesses present in that box that fateful evening. Mary Todd Lincoln was certainly there, as were Major Henry Rathbone and his fiancé/stepsister Clara Harris. By some accounts (including Forbes' own account) presidential aide Charles Forbes was there as well.   The Lincoln party arrived at the theater around 8:30 PM, about a half-hour after the play, Our American Cousin, had begun. The show was briefly halted while the band played "Hail to the Chief," accompanied by a rousing ovation from the crowd, after which the Lincolns and their guests quietly took their seats and the play resumed. Some two hours later, the president lay mortally wounded with a lead ball lodged in his brain.   Of the four potential eyewitnesses, none were ever questioned by reporters. Only one was ever questioned by authorities. Only one was ever deposed. Only one was ever called upon to testify as to what he or she witnessed that evening. Only one ever spoke publicly in any way about what exactly transpired in that box. Despite the fact that the Lincoln assassination was billed as the Crime of the Century, authorities seem to have had no interest at all in speaking with the handful of people who actually witnessed the event.   As for Mary Todd Lincoln, the only words of hers that were ever made public concerning the death of her husband were from a personal letter she sent to an Edward Lewis Baker, Jr. in 1877, twelve years after the assassination. And those strangely punctuated words shed no light at all on the events of that evening: "God, gives us our beloved ones, we make them our idols, they are removed from us, & we have patiently to await the time, when, He, reunites us to them. And the waiting, is so long! My bereavements, have been so intense, the most loving and devoted of husbands, torn from my side, my hand within his own, at the time – and God has recalled from this earth, sons, the most idolising, the noblest, purest, most talented – that were ever given to parents – Their presence grand & beautiful – too good for this world, so full of sorrow – Yet the time will come, when the severance, will be over, together husband, wife and children – never more to be separated – I grieve for those who have been called upon to give up their precious ones, and until the sunlight of a happier clime dawns upon us, we will never know until then, why, we have been visited, by such sorrow."   Clara Harris was similarly tight-lipped about what she witnessed at Ford's Theatre. Her account also comes from personal correspondence, this one written on April 29, 1865, just two weeks after the tragedy: "That terrible Friday night is to me yet almost like some dreadful vision … We four composed the party that evening. They drove to our door in the gayest spirits; chatting on our way – and the President was received with the greatest enthusiasm. They say we were watched by the assassins; ay, as we alighted from the carriage. Oh, how could anyone be so cruel as to strike that kind, dear, honest face! And when I think of that fiend barring himself in alone with us, my blood runs cold. My dress is saturated with blood; my hands and face were covered. You may imagine what a scene! And so, all through that dreadful night, when we stood by that dying bed. Poor Mrs. Lincoln was and is almost crazy. Henry narrowly escaped with his life. The knife struck at his heart with all the force of a practiced and powerful arm; he fortunately parried the blow, and received a wound in his arm, extending along the bone, from the elbow nearly to the shoulder. He concealed it for some time, but was finally carried home in swoon; the loss of blood had been so great from an artery and veins severed. He is now getting quite well, but cannot as yet use his arm …"   It wasn't until almost thirty years after the assassination that Charles Forbes swore out an affidavit; unfortunately, that affidavit also fails to shed any light at all on the events of that evening: "I was the personal attendant of the late President Lincoln from shortly after his first inauguration up to the time he fell by the assassin's bullet … I accompanied him in the carriage, was with him from the carriage to the box in the theatre, and was in the box when the assassin fired his fatal shot." Curious that nearly three decades after John Wilkes Booth was identified as the assassin, Forbes referred to him merely as "the assassin."   And that, dear readers, is the sum total of what we have from three of the four eyewitnesses. Considering once again that this was, as I may have mentioned, the Crime of the Century, that is a rather remarkable set of circumstances.   That leaves us with only the tale told by Major Henry Rathbone, which we already know was a hopelessly scripted, rehearsed affair that he told under oath in almost exactly the same words on no less than three occasions. And yet it is the only account we have – the only account we will ever have – so we must look at it in its entirety, as originally told at his April 17, 1865 deposition. It is a strange tale, to be sure, and it would seem to indicate that Rathbone spent more time studying the physical characteristics of the room than he did watching the play:   "The box assigned to the President is in the second tier, on the right hand side of the audience and was occupied by the President and Mrs. Lincoln, Miss Harris and this deponent and by no other person. The box is entered by passing from the front of the building in the rear of the dress circle to a small entry or passageway about eight feet in length and four feet in width. This passageway is entered by a door which opens on the inner side. This door is placed as to make an acute angle between it and the wall behind it on the inner side. At the inner end of this passageway is another door standing squarely across and opening into the box. On the left hand side of the passageway and very near the inner end is a third door which also opens into the box. This latter door was closed. The party entered the box through the door at the end of the passageway. The box is so constructed that it may be divided into two by a movable partition, one of the doors described opening into each. The front of the box is about ten or twelve feet in length and in the center of the railing is a small pillar overhung with a curtain. The depth of the box from front to rear is about nine feet. The elevation of the box above the stage including the railing is about ten or twelve feet.   "When the party entered the box a cushioned armchair was standing at the end of the box furthest from the stage and nearest the audience. This was also the nearest point to the door from which the box is entered. The President seated himself in this chair and, except that he once left the chair for the purpose of putting on his overcoat, remained so seated until he was shot. Mrs. Lincoln was seated in a chair between the President and the pillar in the centre, above described. At the opposite end of the box – that nearest the stage – were two chairs. In one of these, standing in the corner, Miss Harris was seated. At her left hand and along the wall running from that end of the box to the rear stood a small sofa. At the end of this sofa next to Miss Harris this deponent was seated, and the President, as they were sitting, was about seven or eight feet and the distance between this deponent and the door was about the same. The distance between the President as he sat and the door was about four or five feet. The door, according to the recollections of this deponent, was not closed during the evening.   "When the second scene of the third act was being performed and while this deponent was intently viewing the proceedings upon the stage with his back toward the door he heard the discharge of a pistol behind him and looking round saw through the smoke, a man between the door and the President. At the same time deponent heard him shout some word which deponent thinks was 'Freedom.' This deponent instantly sprang towards him and seized him. He wrested himself from the grasp and made a violent thrust at the breast of this deponent with a large knife. Deponent parried the blow by striking it up and received a wound several inches deep in his left arm between the elbow and the shoulder.   The orifice of the wound is about an inch and a half in length and extends upwards towards the shoulder several inches. The man rushed to the front of the box and deponent endeavored to seize him again but only caught his clothes as he was leaping over the railing of the box. The clothes, as this deponent believes, were torn in this attempt to seize him. As he went over upon the stage, deponent cried out with a loud voice 'Stop that man.' Deponent then turned to the President. His position was not changed. His head was slightly bent forward and his eyes were closed. Deponent saw that he was unconscious and, supposing him mortally wounded, rushed to the door for the purpose of calling medical aid. On reaching the outer door of the passageway as above described, deponent found it barred by a heavy piece of plank, one end of which secured in the wall and the other resting against the door.   It had been so securely fastened that it required considerable force to remove it. This wedge or bar was about four feet from the floor. Persons upon the outside were beating against the door for the purpose of entering. Deponent removed the bar and the door was opened. Several persons who represented themselves to be surgeons were allowed to enter. Deponent saw there Colonel Crawford and requested him to prevent other persons from entering the box. Deponent then returned to the box and found the surgeon examining the Presidents person. They had not yet discovered the wound. As soon as it was discovered, it was determined to remove him from the Theatre.   He was carried out this deponent then proceeded to assist Mrs. Lincoln, who was intensely excited, to leave the Theatre. On reaching the head of the stairs, deponent requested Major Potter to aid him in assisting Mrs. Lincoln across the street to the house which the President was being conveyed. The wound which the deponent had received had been bleeding very profusely and on reaching the house, feeling very faint from the loss of blood, he seated himself in the hall and soon after fainted away and was laid upon the floor. Upon the return of consciousness deponent was taken in the carriage to his residence.   "In review of this transaction it is the confident belief of this deponent that the time which elapsed between the discharge of the pistol and the time when the assassin leaped from the box did not exceed thirty seconds. Neither Mrs. Lincoln nor Miss Harris had left their seats."   Rathbone's deposition and subsequent testimony were given at a time when attorneys did not have the luxury of submitting photographic evidence to set the scene for jurors. It appears then that prosecutors used his detailed physical description to paint a mental image for those in the courtroom. And it is very hard to believe that Rathbone would have spontaneously offered up such testimony. Those details were undoubtedly provided to him as part of the script he appears to have been following.   Let us now look at all the other reasons why Rathbone's account is seriously lacking in credibility. First of all, he claims that the alleged assailant was in the box for up to thirty seconds after shooting Lincoln, long enough to grapple with and seriously wound Rathbone. But the accounts of other witnesses in the theater that evening directly contradict that notion. A witness identified only as "Basset," for instance, claimed that "A second after the shot was fired a man vaulted over the ballister of the box." Witness Frederick Sawyer wrote that, "The whole occurrence, the shot, the leap, the escape – was done while you could count to eight." Actor Harry Hawk, after describing the sequence of events, claimed that "The above all occurred in the space of a few seconds, and at the time I did not know the president was shot."   How then was there time for the alleged struggle with Rathbone? And if Rathbone had been grappling with an assailant as said assailant was leaping over the front railing, as Rathbone claimed, those actions would have been visible to many of the witnesses in the theater. And yet none of the witnesses who claimed to see the man leap from the box mentioned seeing him struggling with Rathbone either before or while doing so.   Another problem is that Rathbone claims to have suffered a substantial wound that bled profusely, so much so that his fiancé allegedly found herself drenched in blood, and yet of all the witnesses who said they saw the fleeing man prominently brandish a large knife as he made his exit across the stage, not one of them mentioned seeing any blood on that knife. Or on the man's hands. Or on his clothing. How is it possible that he could have cut Rathbone so severely, and then continued grappling with him, and yet walked away with no visible blood on him?   Yet another minor problem is that neither Rathbone nor his fiancé made any mention of his very serious wound ever being treated. He claimed that the wound was so severe that he passed out from blood loss, but that he then was merely taken home and dropped off. According to the official story, there were at least three skilled surgeons on hand, none of whom could really do much for the mortally wounded Lincoln. Why then didn't anyone bother to attend to such a grave wound inflicted on a guest of the President? From what I hear, those severed arteries can be a real killer if left unattended.   What we seem to have here is a situation in which: (a) witness accounts don't allow for enough time for Rathbone to have been seriously wounded; (b) Rathbone never received treatment for a serious wound; (c) the knife that allegedly inflicted the wound was bloodless just seconds later, as was the guy carrying it; and (d) none of the self-proclaimed witnesses in the theater that night saw Rathbone grappling with his alleged assailant.     Moving on to other peculiarities in Rathbone's account, one obvious question that is raised is: why would John Wilkes Booth, or anyone else entering the box for the purpose of killing Lincoln in the manner in which it occurred, take the time to wedge the outer door shut? Any pursuers weren't going to come from that direction. And if the alleged plan went awry, the assailant might need to flee in that direction. So why cut off a possible means of escape? And how is it that a sturdy wood plank of the precise length needed to do the job just happened to be on hand? Those are questions that historians have never really provided satisfactory answers to.   According to Rathbone's account, the inner door to the box was open all night. How then would the party not have heard an intruder enter the outer door and then close it and forcibly wedge it shut … before sneaking up behind the President? It doesn't seem possible for an uninvited intruder to have done that. And there was no reason to do it. Booth, it will be recalled, was ludicrously armed with a single-shot derringer. The plan, therefore, was heavily dependent upon the element of surprise. Why then risk discovery by pointlessly wedging the door shut?   Who then really wedged that door shut and why? Did it benefit the alleged assailant, or did it provide a window of opportunity to stage the scene before any responders could get to the president?   Several other questions are raised by Rathbone's account, including why the president was seated furthest from the stage and closest to the door? Wouldn't the guest of honor customarily get the best seat in the house? Why had the furniture in the box that day been arranged to place him furthest from the stage? And being that he was the fourth member of the party, why didn't Rathbone sit in the fourth chair along the front of the box? Why did he choose instead to sit alone on a sofa slightly behind the others   Beyond the problems with Rathbone's account, there are other problems with the official story of what went down in Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865. According to witness accounts, the man fleeing across the stage brandished his knife in his right hand, indicating that he was right-handed. But the bullet that killed Lincoln, purportedly fired by an assailant standing behind him, entered behind his left ear and traveled diagonally through the brain cavity, ending up behind his right eye. That would be a rather tricky shot to pull off for a right-hander. To the extent that historians have addressed this anomaly, it is generally claimed that Lincoln turned his head just as the shot was fired. But that is purely speculation aimed at bringing the known facts of the case in line with the official story.   According to all the early witness accounts, events played out very quickly and the suspect was across the stage and out of the building before anyone realized what had happened. It was only then, when it was too late to apprehend the suspect, that Mary Lincoln's anguished cries from the box could be heard, along with Rathbone's futile exhortations to stop the fleeing suspect. But why did it take so long for Mary Todd and the others to cry out?   Mary Lincoln had had her husband gunned down as he sat right beside her, hand in hand. She had then witnessed a violent struggle between her husband's killer and Major Rathbone, during which Rathbone was grievously wounded, bathing the box in blood. Had Rathbone succumbed to his alleged wound, Mary and Clara would have been left alone in that box with a knife-wielding madman. You would think then that they would have been screaming bloody murder throughout the ordeal, and quite likely trying to exit that box. Help, after all, was just steps away.   But instead the two ladies remained stoic, and seated, throughout the performance. It wasn't until the assailant had leaped from the box to the stage, regained his footing, run across the stage and then exited the building that Mary verbally responded to the attack. And Clara Harris never responded at all.   Why the curiously delayed reactions from everyone in the presidential box? And why, as previously asked in this series, would the assailant have chosen such a fundamentally preposterous weapon as a single-shot derringer for this mission? And who would plan an escape route that included an exceedingly risky leap onto a very hard stage floor below, especially while wearing riding boots with spurs? Was that really a planned escape route, or was it an improvised one?   Such are the questions that historians have avoided asking for 150 years now.     One thing that we cannot definitively conclude from the early witness accounts, contrary to popular opinion, is that the guy who hastily exited Ford's Theatre that evening was John Wilkes Booth. In witness accounts recorded years after the official story had cast a long shadow over that day's events, Booth's name pops up fairly often. But it isn't so easy to find in the early accounts.   One guy closest to the scene was Army Captain Theodore McGowan, who was seated in Ford's Theatre not far from the entrance to the president's box. I like to think that this guy was an upright sort of guy, primarily because he had a very honorable name. When called upon to testify at the military tribunal, McGowan had this to say: "I was present at Ford's Theatre on the night of the assassination. I was sitting in the aisle leading by the wall toward the door of the President's box, when a man came and disturbed me in my seat, causing me to push my chair forward to permit him to pass; he stopped about three feet from where I was sitting, and leisurely took a survey of the house. I looked at him because he happened to be in my line of sight … I know J. Wilkes Booth, but, not seeing the face of the assassin fully, I did not at the time recognize him as Booth."   So here we have a guy who knew Booth, and yet from just three feet away, with the guy directly in his line of sight, he did not recognize the man in the theater as Booth. It is a fairly safe bet that the government exerted considerable pressure on Captain McGowan to positively identify Booth, and yet he proved unable, or unwilling, to do so. Curious also that McGowan referred to him in the present tense when Booth was supposed to be dead.   So what are we to make of all of this? Was Rathbone really gravely injured? Or was his wound a substantially less severe one that was self-inflicted while responders were held at bay by the barricaded door? Was it really John Wilkes Booth who entered the presidential box that evening? And whoever it was, did he enter for the purpose of assassinating the president? Would a small derringer have been the weapon of choice for an assassin, or was it a weapon that would have been easy for someone else in that box to have brought along?     One thing we do know – Henry Rathbone's actions in the years after the assassination clearly demonstrated that he was fully capable of two things: murder, and self-inflicted knife wounds. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong, Part X by Dave McGowan | Nov 24, 2014 It should be noted here that it has never made any sense at all why John Wilkes Booth would have chosen Ford's Theatre as the ideal site to assassinate the president. As eyewitness Edwin Bates noted the day after the shooting, "the probability was that the man when found would be discovered to be some insane person, that the lowest depths of human depravity even in a rebel of the worst type would not permit to commit such a horrible deed in so bold a manner before thousands of people & where there could be so little chance of escape." (Timothy S. Good We Saw Lincoln Shot, University Press of Mississippi, 1995)   As H. Donald Winkler has written, there were numerous opportunities to kill Lincoln that would not have put the assassin at such high risk of capture: "the president had made himself an easy target. He stole away for solitary walks, especially at night. He held public receptions where security was almost nonexistent. He conferred with generals in the field. He stood atop a parapet at Fort Stevens on the outskirts of Washington for a clear view of Jubal Early's approaching Confederate forces as soldiers around him were shot dead. He attended the theater frequently. He had walked virtually unguarded through the streets of the fallen Confederate capital. When he and his family stayed at his summer retreat at the Soldiers Home on the outskirts of Washington, he often rode back and forth to the White House in an unguarded carriage. Nearly every night, before going to bed, he strolled without protection down a densely shaded path through the White House grounds to the War Department's telegraph office to learn the latest news from the war front." (H. Donald Winkler Lincoln and Booth, Cumberland House, 2003)   The only conceivable reason to carry out the mission at Ford's was to make the assassination as much of a public spectacle as possible. Which was also true, of course, of the events that played out in Dealey Plaza on November 22, 1963, and the events that played out in New York on September 11, 2001. If there had been television in 1865, you can bet that the cameras would have been rolling in Ford's Theatre on the night of April 14.   Beginning at about 10:30 PM or shortly thereafter on that particular evening, a curious series of events played out in Washington, DC. At about that time, according to the official narrative, a man riding hell-bent-for-leather to get out of town approached the Navy Yard Bridge. The bridge though was closed due to a curfew imposed by the War Department, and armed guards were under standing orders not to let anyone cross without official authorization.   The rider on the swift horse allegedly identified himself as John Wilkes Booth. He did not, of course, need to do that. It wasn't as if the guard, Silas Cobb, was going to ask him for an ID to verify his identity. In those days, a man had to be taken at his word as to who he really was. Those engaged in activities that could earn you jail time, or worse, generally used an array of aliases. But the guy who had allegedly committed the 'Crime of the Century' just minutes earlier purportedly used his real name.   In that regard, Booth was a very accommodating kind of guy. Earlier in the day, when he had supposedly stopped by the Kirkwood House to visit Vice President Johnson – a guy supposedly slated to be assassinated just hours later – Booth had thoughtfully left a calling card. According to Capt. Theodore McGowan, he left another one at the entrance to the presidential box at Ford's Theatre: "He took a small pack of visiting-cards from his pocket, selecting one and replacing the others, stood a second, perhaps, with it in his hand, and then showed it to the President's messenger, who was sitting just below him." Booth was a big believer, it seems, in dropping breadcrumbs along the evidence trail.   Silas Cobb, for reasons that historians have never been able to explain, and often have never attempted to explain, allowed the rider to pass over the closed bridge and into Maryland. Cobb was never reprimanded or punished in any way for allowing the president's assassin to escape the city – which is okay, I suppose, since the same is true of everyone else who blatantly 'dropped the ball' that night.   Just minutes later, another rider looking to cross into Maryland approached the bridge. This rider, who would later be identified in the official narrative as David Herold, failed to properly identify himself. He was, nevertheless, also allowed to cross the officially closed bridge. Minutes after that, a third rider supposedly approached the bridge. This one, local stableman John Fletcher, was supposedly in hot pursuit of David Herold.   Fletcher would later claim that he had seen Herold riding through town on a horse that was supposed to have been returned, and, fearing that the horse was being stolen, he had run back to his stables, saddled and mounted another horse, and took off in pursuit of Herold. Cobb supposedly told Fletcher that he would let him pass, once again in violation of standing orders, but that he wouldn't be able to return, so Fletcher abandoned his alleged pursuit and returned to his stables.   This alleged sequence of events raises any number of deeply troubling questions that historians have done their very best to avoid answering, or even addressing. First and most obviously, why were both Booth and Herold allegedly allowed to pass over a closed bridge despite standing orders to the contrary? Another obvious question is how would John Fletcher have possibly known, after going to fetch his own horse, which way David Herold was headed on the dark streets of Washington?   Yet another painfully obvious question is why would John Wilkes Booth have given his real name? True enough, this was 1865 and travel was by horseback and the world was not a connected sort of place, so Booth would have been confident that Cobb would have had no clue yet about the shooting of Lincoln. But pursuers would surely be on the way very soon, with Ford's Theatre just three miles away, and tipping them off as to your flight path probably isn't such a good idea.   The next obvious question is why didn't pursuers arrive there shortly after this sequence of events? Indeed, why didn't anyone arrive there throughout the entire night? Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, who quickly assumed control of the manhunt, had an impressive array of manpower at his disposal: federal troops, metro police, cavalry troops, provost marshals, and Lafayette Baker's NDP detectives. Yet none of them ever made their way over to the Navy Yard Bridge, though it was well known as an underground Confederate route.   Manpower was deployed first to the north and northwest, the least likely escape routes. The only hole in the dragnet throughout the entire night was the underground route to the South across the Navy Yard Bridge, which was never mentioned that night in any War Department dispatches. Had anyone involved in the manhunt – anyone at all – bothered to stop by the Navy Yard Bridge, it would have been quickly discovered that Booth and a likely accomplice had crossed over into Maryland. But that didn't happen and pursuers were instead sent on wild goose chases throughout the night.   Another less obvious question is why was Booth so woefully unprepared for his escape? He had to assume that he was going to have to hide out for a time and/or survive on the trail. Why then did he bring no provisions with him? No change of clothes, no bedroll or blanket, no weapons other than his dagger, no toiletries or razor, no food. Nothing that would be required for survival on the road. And the same was true of Herold.   Why would Booth, or any reasonably sane person, plot an assassination at a venue from which escape was highly unlikely? Why would the very first phase of that escape involve an incredibly risky leap onto a hard stage floor while wearing riding boots with spurs? Why would his escape route necessitate crossing a bridge that he had no reasonable expectation of being allowed to cross? And why would he have failed to bring along any provisions to survive during his time on the lam?   There is also the question of why there was a two to three-hour interruption in telegraph service in and out of Washington following the assassination. Stanton had been installed as Secretary of War in January 1862 on the recommendation of Secretary of State William Seward. On February 14, Lincoln had signed Executive Order #1, giving Stanton the power of arbitrary arrest. That too had been at Seward's urging. By early March, Stanton had assumed control of all the nation's telegraph lines and had the machinery comprising the hub of the system moved to the War Department offices. He would soon seize control of the country's transportation system as well.   In addition to the civilian telegraph system, the War Department had its own system as well, to transmit secure news and updates on the war effort. Both systems were housed next to Stanton's office at the War Department. On the night of April 14, the civilian telegraph service was out for up to three hours following the assassination, disrupting communications in and out of Washington. That curious fact was never publicly acknowledged. There was also an unexplained delay in getting the news out on the War Department's telegraph service. The first dispatch concerning the shooting of Lincoln was not written until 1:30 AM, more than three hours after the events at Ford's Theatre; it wasn't sent until 2:15 AM, some four hours after the curtain fell at Ford's.   Then there were the curious actions of LA Gobright, the Associated Press agent in the nation's capitol. At around 11:00 PM, he sent out his first dispatch, which was oddly vague and lacking in details. Even odder, he quickly followed it with a second dispatch instructing recipients that the first message was "stopped." Gobright, it should be noted, was very close to the scene and knew what had gone down. He supposedly rushed over to Ford's immediately after the shooting and is credited with being the guy who allegedly found the derringer on the floor of the box, where it had conveniently been left behind but had apparently not been noticed by anyone else. I guess securing the crime scene wasn't a big priority in those days, even when it was the scene of the Crime of the Century, so it was up to reporters to gather the physical evidence.   And some of you probably thought that having controlled assets in the media was some kind of mid-20th century innovation that began with Operation Mockingbird. Guess again.   Yet another problem with the official story is that this was supposed to be a very well planned, coordinated attack on multiple targets. The attacks on President Lincoln in Ford's Theatre, Secretary of State William Seward in his family home, Vice President Andrew Johnson in his hotel room, and possibly Secretary of War Edwin Stanton in his family home, were supposed to occur simultaneously, which would have been an extremely difficult operation to pull off given the limitations in communications in those days.   A considerable amount of research and planning would have had to go into such an ambitious project. But the reality is that it wasn't known that the Lincolns were going to be attending Ford's Theatre until the very day that Lincoln was shot, which didn't leave a lot of time to plan such an intricate series of attacks. Yet we are to believe the plan was thwarted only by such things as Lewis Powell's ineptitude with a knife and George Adzerodt's cowardice.   And if there was an extensive amount of planning done, then why was no thought apparently given to the aftermath and escape? Lewis Powell never made it out of the city and supposedly ended up hiding out in a tree for a few days. Booth chose an escape route that included a dangerous jump onto a stage floor in front of hundreds of potential pursuers, followed by heading directly to a closed bridge under armed guard. And then he was off into the wilderness for an extended stay, with a broken leg and no provisions.   One aspect of the events of that day that is frequently downplayed is the late cancellation by General Ulysses Grant and his wife, which was highly unusual. Declining a presidential invitation was all but unthinkable in those days; canceling at the eleventh hour was obviously an even worse affront. Especially when this was to be a major historical event – the first joint public appearance of the victorious president and his heroic general. And especially when the reason given for the cancellation – that the Grants had to catch an evening train to go see their kids in New Jersey – didn't hold much water.   As Winkler has written, "the Grants could have taken a Saturday morning train with better connections than the six o'clock Friday evening train, which was much slower and necessitated a long wait in Philadelphia. The morning train would have reunited the Grants with their children just two hours later than the earlier train." So the Grants could have spent the evening at the theater basking in the adulation of the crowd, then enjoyed a good night's sleep in Washington, and still got to their children almost as quickly. Why then would they choose to both inconvenience themselves and snub the president?   And they were not the only ones to snub the president. After the cancellation by the Grants, Lincoln asked a few other notable figures in Washington, who all declined. One of them was Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax, Jr., who would, four years later, take over the vice-president's office. And so it was that the guys who would take over as president and vice-president when Lincoln's term expired both opted to snub Lincoln on the evening of his assassination. Lucky break for them, I guess. And the guy who immediately took over at the White House, just as soon as he sobered up, caught a really lucky break when George Adzerodt supposedly opted not to assassinate him.   Schuyler Colfax, by the way, was a member of the extended van Cortland/Schuyler/Rensselaer clan that also includes Laurel Canyon's own David van Cortland Crosby.   By various accounts, Lincoln walked over to the War Department on the afternoon/evening of April 14 to ask Stanton if Major Thomas Eckert might serve as his guest/bodyguard that evening. Eckert had run the War Department's telegraph service since 1862. He was a large, powerfully built, physically imposing man who historians agree would have provided Lincoln with considerable protection. But Stanton refused, claiming that Eckert had important work to do that night. In truth, Eckert would be at home that evening, doing nothing of any importance.   Though Eckert was ostensibly recruited by the War Department based on his expertise with telegraph systems, he was a close confidant of Stanton who was known to receive assignments far removed from organizing and running communications systems. One of those assignments, as previously noted, was as Lewis Powell's personal guard during his confinement and 'trial.' Not long after completing that assignment, Eckert was rewarded with a promotion to Assistant Secretary of War.   Yet another longstanding problem with the official story is the unexplained assignment of ne'er-do-well police officer John Parker as Lincoln's personal bodyguard, an assignment he had landed just over a week earlier. That assignment had come, though no one really likes to talk much about it, at the instigation of Mary Todd Lincoln. Mary wrote a letter on April 3, 1865, handwritten on White House stationary, that read as follows: "This is to certify that John F. Parker, a member of the Metropolitan Police, has been detailed for duty at the Executive Mansion. By order of Mrs. Lincoln." The next day, she wrote another requesting that Parker be exempted from the draft.   Due directly to Mary Lincoln's actions, it was Parker who was assigned to guard the president at Ford's Theatre. True to his nature, he arrived at least two hours late for that assignment. And then promptly abandoned his post, leaving the president unguarded. So that he could wander next door and get good and drunk, by some accounts. He next surfaced at 6:00 AM the next morning at the police precinct, in the company of a drunken hooker. Parker attempted to book her, but records indicate that he was unable to make a case against her and she was released. Parker had a habit of arresting prostitutes who refused to provide him with free services. In any event, the important point here is that Parker obviously had more important business to attend to than preventing the assassination of the president.   Metro police superintendent A.C. Richards – the same guy who the industrious AP agent supposedly turned the derringer over to – filed charges against Parker in May 1865. But those charges were dropped the next month without explanation and Parker continued on in his position. Numerous questions still surround this particular aspect of the assassination, as summarized by H. Donald Winkler:   "Inquiring minds should have raised the following questions regarding Mary Lincoln, Edwin M. Stanton, and John Parker: On what basis and on whose authority did the first lady authorize Parker's assignment to the White House? On whose recommendation was Parker's name submitted to her? Was she aware of Parker's record? If she was, why did she want such a person to guard her husband? If she was not familiar with Parker, what prompted her to approve him without knowing more about him? Did she know him at all? Was she related to him, or did she think she was related to him? (Her mother's family name was Parker.) Did she authorize Parker to leave his post to watch the play? Was Stanton aware of Parker's assignment to the White House? If he was not, should he have been? If he was, why didn't he object to it? Considering the secretary's concern for the president's safety, shouldn't his department have investigated anyone proposed for assignment to protect the president? Considering the innocent people arrested after the assassination, why didn't Stanton order Parker's arrest or at least investigate his apparent misconduct? Was it not possible that Parker was part of Booth's conspiracy? Didn't that possibility deserve investigation? Regarding Parker's superiors, did Stanton consider that one of them might have issued orders allowing Parker to leave his post? Was he aware of Mary Lincoln's endorsement of Parker? Was that a factor in his decision not to arrest Parker? Did the secretary in any way try to influence any pending charges against Parker? If so, why? Was he trying to protect Mary Lincoln? Did Stanton know Parker or have any contact with him before April 14? Did any of his staff know Parker? Did Parker have any communication with Mary Lincoln, John Wilkes Booth, Stanton, or anyone from the War Department on or before April 14, 1865? Did he know Booth? Did Booth bribe him to leave his post? Who dictated Parker's duties for that night? What specifically were his instructions? Why did he leave his post? Did it not occur to Parker that by doing so he was jeopardizing the president's life?"   As Winkler added, "Such questions apparently were never asked, and the participants never commented on them. No one seemed to want to set the record straight."   Keep in mind that that lengthy list of questions only covers one small aspect of the events of that day. There are literally hundreds of unanswered, and frequently unasked, questions still surrounding the Lincoln assassination. As one further example, there is the question of how it was that in at least a half-dozen isolated pockets of the country, news of Lincoln's assassination was reported four to twelve hours before the Lincolns had arrived at Ford's Theatre?   Folks in St. Joseph, Minnesota, which was 40 miles from the nearest railroad and 80 miles from the nearest telegraph service, learned of Lincoln's death while he was still very much alive. So did the good people of Manchester, New Hampshire. And the people living in Middleton, New York. And in Newburgh, New York as well. Ace reporters at the Whig Press got the scoop before the shot was fired.   Shit happens, I guess. Maybe they had caught wind of the fact that, a couple weeks before the assassination, Mary Todd Lincoln, who was known to go on extravagant shopping sprees, had purchased some $25,000 (in today's dollars) worth of mourning clothes. It's always good to be prepared. Even when your husband isn't even ill, let alone dying. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong, Part XI by Dave McGowan | Mar 13, 2015 When we left off on the last outing, two men officially identified as John Wilkes Booth and David Herold had just crossed the Navy Yard Bridge from Washington, DC into Maryland. They were the only two people to cross the bridge after curfew that fateful night, so being allowed to do so was quite the lucky break for the pair. Just as it had been a lucky break for Booth that Lincoln's bodyguard for the evening, John Parker, had abandoned his post (as had coachman Francis Burns and presidential aide Charles Forbes, all three of whom went next door to drink in the same bar as John Wilkes Booth), and that General Grant and his military entourage had not accompanied the Lincoln party to the theater.   Booth caught numerous 'lucky breaks' that night, like having the telegraph service go down right after the assassination. But as Thomas Eckert later explained to a congressional committee, that apparently was a trivial matter: "It did not at the time seem sufficiently important, as the interruption only continued about two hours. I was so full of business of almost every character that I could not give it my personal attention … I could not ascertain with certainty what the facts were without making a personal investigation, and I had not time to do that."   For those who may have forgotten, Eckert was hired specifically to set up and maintain the telegraph system, which naturally raises the question of what other, more important "business of every character" he had to attend to on a night when keeping the system running should have been, one would think, of utmost importance.         Four versions of Booth's alleged escape route   Leonard Guttridge and Ray Neff have written in Dark Union that Booth caught another lucky break when, at the same time that the telegraph system mysteriously went down, "someone at the gasworks on Maryland Avenue shut off the gas that fed the lights around the Capitol and westward along Pennsylvania Avenue," plunging the assassin's escape route into darkness at a most opportune time. (Leonard Guttridge and Ray Neff  Dark Union: The Secret Web of Profiteers, Politicians, and Booth Conspirators That Led to Lincoln's Death, Wiley, 2003)   Booth also caught a lucky break when his questionable choice of a firearm turned out to be surprisingly adequate for the job. He took a huge risk, it will be recalled, in bringing a Derringer as his only firearm – a risk that was, as James Swanson noted in Manhunt, completely unnecessary: "Booth couldn't have chosen the Deringer [sic] because he could not obtain a revolver. He had already purchased at least four, and if he did not have any in his hotel room within easy reach, he could have gone out and bought another one. In the war capital of the Union, thousands of guns, including small, lightweight pocket-sized revolvers, were for sale in the shops of Washington." (James Swanson  Manhunt: The 12-Day Chase for Lincoln's Killer, William Morrow, 2006)   Another lucky break for Booth was that the locks on both of the doors leading into the presidential box at Ford's Theatre were conveniently broken, rendering them useless. And a spy hole had been drilled into one of them at eye level, so that someone approaching could survey the scene inside the booth before entering. Both of those anomalies were apparently unnoticed by Lincoln and his not-very-security-oriented entourage. And, as previously discussed, a heavy piece of lumber precisely long enough to wedge the door shut happened to be on hand. Many historians have claimed that Booth himself had come by earlier in the day and broken the locks, drilled the hole, and fashioned and hidden the wedge for the door, but no evidence to support such claims has ever been presented.   Booth also caught a lucky break in that he was able to successfully execute an unlikely and extremely risky escape from a crowded theater. As no less a scholar than Bill O'Reilly has had written for him, "A less informed man might worry about being trapped in a building with a limited number of exits, no windows, and a crowd of witnesses—many of them able-bodied men just back from the war." Donald Winkler was a bit more blunt in his assessment: "It sounded like a foolhardy plan with no chance of success.   How could one man with a single-shot derringer, a bullet, and a knife walk nonchalantly through a crowded theater, pass unobstructed through two doors into the State Box, stand behind the president without being seen by the two occupants in the box, kill the president with no one hearing the sound of the shot, leap eleven feet to the stage, take time to yell a message to the audience, and escape through a rear exit? Fulfilling this mission required far more than blind luck." (Bill O'Reilly and Martin Dugard Killing Lincoln: The Shocking Assassination That Changed America Forever, Henry Holt, 2011; and H. Donald Winkler Lincoln and Booth: More Light on the Conspiracy, Cumberland House, 2003)   Actually, there were obviously more than two occupants in the box and plenty of people heard the shot, but such glaring errors are commonplace in the existing literature on the assassination.   So having caught numerous 'lucky breaks,' Booth and Herold rode off separately into the Maryland night, with Booth having a lead on Herold. No mention is ever made of why Powell, who had supposedly attacked the Seward family, and Adzerodt, who was supposed to have killed second-in-command Andrew Johnson, were not included in the escape plan. In any event, Booth and Herold supposedly met up eight miles from the city limits. How they did so in the dark and with no communication devices is anyone's guess. No mention is made in the literature of Booth asking Herold anything about how the alleged attack at the Seward mansion had gone down, or about the attack on Johnson that had supposedly been planned, or about what had become of Powell and Adzerodt.     The Surrat Tavern in Surrattsville   The pair's first stop, so the story goes, was at Mary Surratt's tavern in Surrattsville, run by John Lloyd. They allegedly arrived there around midnight. Lloyd, known as a raging drunkard, allegedly supplied the pair with two carbines, field glasses, and booze. By many accounts, his confession to such high crimes was obtained through torture. And it is never explained why the pair wouldn't have already had those items, and various other provisions, from the outset. Lloyd became a witness for the prosecution at the pseudo-trial of the conspirators. Of course, his other option was certain conviction and probable execution, so he was highly motivated to tell the story the government wanted him to tell.   The pair's next stop – at about 4:30 in the morning on April 15, 1865, with Lincoln still clinging to life – was at the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd, who gained the dubious distinction of being the only person along Booth's alleged escape route to be prosecuted and convicted. "Wanted" posters issued by Secretary of War Edwin Stanton warned that "All persons harboring or secreting the conspirators or aiding their concealment or escape, will be treated as accomplices in the murder of the President and shall be subject to trial before a military commission, and the punishment of death." As we shall see though, various historians have identified at least two dozen people who supposedly provided aid and comfort to the fugitives, and none of them, other than Mudd, were ever prosecuted for their alleged crimes and all of their names are now long forgotten.     The home of Dr. Mudd and family   Booth and Herold supposedly introduced themselves to Mudd using the aliases of Tyson and Henson, and by some accounts, Booth wore a fake beard – which of course makes perfect sense since Booth had chosen not to don a disguise before committing the crime, and had left his real name scattered about the crime scene and the escape route. And by virtually all accounts, Mudd knew Booth and had had prior dealings with him, so the good doctor would surely have seen through a cheap disguise. For the record, Mudd claimed that he did not recognize the man he treated as John Wilkes Booth, and he could not identify David Herold from a photograph.   Herold, meanwhile, maintained that he had crossed the bridge out of Washington on the afternoon of April 14 and was long gone from the city when Lincoln was shot. He also claimed that he had not gone to the Mudd house with Booth or anyone else. And evidence does indeed suggest that Herold spent the afternoon of April 14 on a horseback ride in the Maryland countryside. And he did so with – and I couldn't possibly make this stuff up – a sixteen-year-old kid by the name of Johnny Booth, who was apparently not related to the far more famous John Booth. Herold and the young Booth got drunk and passed out and were found the next morning by Johnny's father. Johnny and his father, of course, were not called upon the testify at the mock trial.   Meanwhile, Mudd repaired the damage to his visitor's leg, which he later described in a statement as a not very serious or painful wound, and fashioned a splint for him. He then offered the exhausted travelers sleeping accommodations. After catching some sleep and paying the good doctor for his services, the pair left later that day. At the infamous trial of the conspirators, the story did not pick up again until nine days later, on April 24, when the pair allegedly took a ferry across the Rappahannock River. Various historical narratives have filled in those missing nine days, though not necessarily with a story that has much credibility.            Thomas Jones and namesake   According to Lincoln folklore, a guy by the name of Oswell Swann (sometimes identified as Oswald Swann), described as being half black and half Indian, guided the pair to the home of a Samuel Cox at about 1:00 AM on April 16, 1865. Cox allegedly advised Booth and Herold to hide out in a nearby pine thicket, and had his overseer, Franklin Robey, guide them there. He then summoned Thomas Jones to supply them with food, blankets, and newspapers. Needless to say, none of these men were ever prosecuted for their alleged capital offenses.     Samuel Cox   Booth and Herold supposedly spent five long days cooling their heels in that pine thicket. During that time, they had to keep quiet at all times for fear of alerting any nearby patrols to their whereabouts. They couldn't light a fire to keep warm. And Booth is generally described as being immobilized and in considerable pain from his injury (the one that Dr. Mudd described as not particularly painful). According to the best-selling Manhunt, for example, "Booth never rose from the ground during the time in the thicket." So the wealthy, accomplished, well-bred actor spent five agonizing days lying hungry and motionless on the cold, unforgiving ground of a Maryland pine thicket. Sounds perfectly reasonable.   One problem with that tall tale though concerns the fate of Booth's and Herold's horses. It is agreed that they surely had horses when they arrived at the pine thicket, and they would have had to get rid of them to avoid giving away their position to any passing patrols. So what happened to them? In Manhunt, James Swanson tells the following tale: "Davey [Herold] untied both horses and led them by the reins to a quicksand morass about a mile from the pine thicket. Quickly, he shot each one in the head with a pistol or the carbine, and then sank their bodies, still accoutered with saddles, bits, bridles, stirrups, and all. There they rest in an unmarked grave, their skeletons undiscovered to this day."   Here Swanson has acknowledged something that historians agree on: despite one of the world's most exhaustive manhunts, no trace of the two horses was ever found. According to the guy who actually writes the books that Bill O'Reilly puts his name on, "A combined force of seven hundred Illinois cavalry, six hundred members of the Twenty-second Colored Troops, and one hundred men from the Sixteenth New York Cavalry Regiment now enter the wilderness of Maryland's vast swamps [on April 18, 1865] … Incredibly, eighty-seven of these brave men will drown in their painstaking weeklong search for the killers." No large animal carcasses were found on that search, or on any other searches. O'Reilly doesn't mention, by the way, how many of those eighty-seven alleged drowning deaths involved members of the Twenty-Second Colored Troops (sorry – I couldn't resist).   Historians also agree that Booth was far too seriously injured to be of any help to Herold, leaving Herold solely responsible for disposing of the horses. There are, generally speaking, two versions of the 'story of the disappearing horses,' both of which are laughably absurd. One commonly told fable holds that Herold led the two horses into quicksand; the other posits that he shot and buried them. Swanson has essentially weaved a new version of the tall tale by combining the two.   Some historians just avoid any mention of the disappearing horses trick, probably out of a desire to not sound like buffoons. But others have no problem with repeating tales that have stood unchallenged for well over a century despite being easily discredited. Because the reality, dear readers, is that there is no rational explanation for how two horses and all the gear accompanying them could have just vanished into thin air. Only in some fantasy world would it be possible for one man, working alone in fairly primitive conditions and with no tools at his disposal, to dig graves deep enough to completely conceal two very large animal carcasses without even leaving mounds for searchers to find. And even if he could somehow dig the holes, how would one man get those very heavy carcasses into those miraculously excavated graves? And wouldn't shooting them be a very risky maneuver, since gunshots tend to attract attention? It seems rather unlikely then that Herold shot the horses and then buried them both with his bare hands.   Equally preposterous is the claim that Herold led the horses into quicksand and let them sink to their deaths. Horses can be rather obedient creatures, to be sure, but they certainly aren't stupid and they won't willingly walk into what they would surely perceive as a deathtrap. And how exactly would someone go about leading them into quicksand? Wouldn't that require that the person doing the leading would have to walk out into the quicksand ahead of the horses? Those are rather moot points though given that Wikipedia describes quicksand as "harmless," and notes that "People falling into (and, unrealistically, being submerged in) quicksand or a similar substance is a trope of adventure fiction, notably in movies."   It doesn't actually happen, you see, in real life. But that hasn't stopped mainstream historians and academics from promoting such nonsense for decades.   As previously noted, Swanson has combined the two versions of the 'disappearing horses' fable. No graves needed to be dug because the bodies were disposed of in quicksand, though horse-swallowing quicksand pits only exist in movies and TV shows from the 1960s – and in bestsellers that begin with the words, "This story is true." And in this particular version of the fable, Herold didn't have to lead the horses into the mythical quicksand, he just led them to it. But what Swanson leaves out is an explanation of how Herold single-handedly drug or pushed those half-ton horse carcasses into a fictional quicksand pit. The only way that could actually happen is in a cartoon.   In any event, after allegedly spending five long days lounging in a Maryland pine thicket, our antiheroes supposedly emerged to attempt a crossing of the Potomac River in a boat supplied by local fisherman Henry Rowland. Their first attempt though failed when the 'pair that couldn't row straight' supposedly paddled the wrong direction and ended up in Nanjemoy Creek, still on the Maryland side of the Potomac. Not to worry though – they went to a farm owned by Peregrine Davis and operated by his son-in-law, John Hughes, who happily put his life on the line by feeding and sheltering the fugitives.   The next night, April 21, Booth and Herold chose not to attempt a second crossing of the Potomac, for reasons never explained by historians. It had been a full week since the assassination and the most wanted men in America had failed to put much distance at all between themselves and Washington, but they apparently weren't in any hurry.       Elizabeth Quesenberry and her home   The dynamic duo allegedly made a second attempt the next night and successfully navigated into Machodoc Creek, near the home of Elizabeth Quesenberry. They arrived at Quesenberry's home at around 1:00 PM on April 23. The lady of the house promptly sent for Thomas Harbin, who was reportedly Thomas Jones' brother-in-law. Harbin arrived at about 3:00 PM with horses and two associates, William Bryant and Joseph Baden. The five men then rode to the home of Dr. Richard Stuart, who was apparently related in some way to General Robert E. Lee.      Thomas Harbin      Dr. Richard Stuart   Stuart directed the party, which arrived at around 8:00 PM, to the cabin of a freed slave by the name of William Lucas – because, you know, freed slaves were highly motivated to assist Lincoln's alleged assassin. From there, Booth and Herold were supposedly transported by son Charley Lucas to Port Conway hidden under a load of straw in a wagon. In Port Conway, the fugitive pair hooked up with three Confederate soldiers by the names of Mortimer Ruggles, Absalom Bainbridge and William Jett, who by some accounts had been under the command of notorious Confederate intelligence operative John S. Mosby (Mosby, by the way, would soon enthusiastically campaign for and serve in the cabinet of Ulysses S. Grant, the man who had defeated his supposedly beloved Confederacy).   Booth, Herold, Ruggles, Jett and Bainbridge, along with a few horses, purportedly took a ferry across the Rappahannock River. At approximately 3:00 PM on April 24, 1865, they arrived at the Garrett home. The gravely injured, or not so gravely injured, John Wilkes Booth stayed at the home while Herold rode on to Bowling Green with his new friends. Booth spent the night with one of the Garrett sons while Herold and Bainbridge slept at the home of Joseph and Elizabeth Clarke. Herold returned the next day with Ruggles and Bainbridge, though Jett stayed behind in Bowling Green, from where he would soon lead a posse to the Garrett farm.      Ruggles    Bainbridge (both circa 1890)    Jett   Booth and Herold spent the next night, April 25, supposedly locked in the Garretts' tobacco barn, making them easy prey for the posse that would soon arrive. The Reverend Richard Garrett, however, who was just eleven at the time of the assassination, would later note that the barn actually had double doors on all four sides and large windows in the upper story. William H. Garrett would add that some of those doors and windows fastened on the inside. There was, therefore, no way to actually lock the fugitives inside, another unfortunate fact that has been swept aside by historians.   The posse that would allegedly end the life of John Wilkes Booth arrived at the Garrett home at around 2:00 AM on April 26, 1865. A few hours later, Booth, or someone playing the part of Booth, had been shot. In due time, Dr. Richard Stuart, William Bryant, Elizabeth Quesenberry, Samuel Cox, Thomas Jones, the Garrett sons, and various others were arrested and taken to the Old Capital Prison. Curiously though, they were all freed without being charged. All but Dr. Mudd.     Sign commemorating fictional historical events   Meanwhile, as Booth and Herold were following their convoluted path to the Garrett farm, a massive manhunt spearheaded by Edwin Stanton was underway. We shall pick up there on the next outing. Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong, Part XII by Dave McGowan | Mar 13, 2015 Before resuming where we left off, I need to tack on some info here that should have been included in earlier installments. First off, there were, as it turns out, at least three additional suspicious deaths that followed closely on the heels of the Lincoln assassination, so let's take a quick look at those. And as I'm sure it will be recalled, these deaths are in addition to all the other curious deaths and confinements that have previously been discussed.   First up for review is Colonel Levi C. Turner, who was appointed Assistant Judge Advocate for the Army on August 5, 1862, which positioned him to be second-in-command to Judge Advocate Holt during the farcical 'trial of the conspirators.' The colonel also worked closely with notorious NDP chief Lafayette Baker during and after the Civil War to investigate suspected subversive activities. Turner died of unstated causes on March 13, 1867, less than two years after Lincoln was slain and about sixteen months before Baker himself turned up dead.   Also up for review is our old friend Silas Cobb, the guy who was in charge of guarding the Navy Yard Bridge and enforcing the curfew on the night of the assassination. Cobb was the accommodating gent who allegedly allowed both Booth and Herold to escape from Washington and then failed to offer any reasonable explanation for his actions, and of course suffered no repercussions for those actions. Cobb turned up dead in November 1867, two-and-a-half years after Lincoln was shot. According to reports, he was the victim of a drowning accident.   Finally we have Henri Beaumont de Sainte-Marie, the chap who was credited with tipping off authorities to the whereabouts of John Surratt, ultimately leading to Surratt's arrest, extradition, and failed prosecution. De Sainte-Marie died at the relatively young age of forty-one while still awaiting a claims court decision on the hefty reward promised for information leading to Surratt's capture.   I also discussed in a previous post the fact that former British First Lady Cherie Blair is a descendant of the Booth clan, thereby demonstrating that the Booth family has continued to wield political power into the modern era. What I didn't know at the time was that another member of the Booth dynasty wielded considerable power on this side of the Atlantic right up until her death at the infamous Watergate Apartments on October 9, 1987.   She was hiding right in plain sight, disguised only by the "e" that her branch of the family had added to the Booth name to mask the association. That wielder of power was none other than Clare Boothe Luce, who, along with her husband Henry Luce – a Skull and Bonesman who became a publishing magnate, launching such influential magazines as Time, Life, Fortune, and Sports Illustrated – was a longtime asset of the Central Intelligence Agency.   Boothe was born on March 10, 1903 to unmarried parents who lived a shadowy life and moved around a lot. Her mother was known to use at least three aliases and her father used at least two. Clare briefly flirted with being an actress before embarking on a career as a journalist, war correspondent, politician and diplomat. Curiously, another woman born in 1903 and also known as Claire Luce also became an actress, creating a good deal of confusion after Clare Boothe became Clare Luce.    Clare Boothe Luce   Clare Boothe Luce had the distinction of being the first American woman named to a key diplomatic post, serving as the US Ambassador to Italy from 1953 to 1956. In 1959, she very briefly served as the US Ambassador to Brazil before resigning. From 1943 to 1947, she had served in the House of Representatives, representing Connecticut. During that time, she served on the House Military Affairs Committee, because she naturally knew a lot about military affairs.   During the 1960s, her and her husband busied themselves with sponsoring anti-Castro groups seeking to return Cuba to its former status as a US puppet-state. In 1973, she was appointed to the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, because she obviously also knew a lot about foreign intelligence. In 1983, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Boothe Luce was also a Dame of Malta.   It is a strange world indeed when well over a century after the first acknowledged assassination of a sitting US president (historians don't generally have much to say about the untimely deaths of William Harrison, who served for just one month, or Zachary Taylor, who served for some sixteen months), members of the alleged assassin's family were still wielding considerable political power on both sides of the Atlantic. Last time I checked, there weren't any members of the Guiteau, Czolgosz, Oswald or Sirhan families occupying such positions of power.   And now, we return to our regularly scheduled programming ….   While Booth and Herold were supposedly taking their time getting from Washington to Garrett's farm (traveling a distance of less than 100 miles in a week-and-a-half), the largest manhunt in the young nation's history was underway, coordinated by our old friend, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. From the outset, Stanton's goal seemed to be to avoid actually apprehending John Wilkes Booth and some of the other alleged conspirators.   Stanton had considerable manpower at his disposal, including idle US military forces in Washington, the Metropolitan Police, Lafayette Baker's detective force, US Cavalry forces, and provost marshals. Working closely with Stanton were Metro Police Superintendent A.C. Richards, Washington Provost Marshall Major James O'Beirne, and General Christopher Columbus Augur, commander of US military forces in Washington. To say that Stanton misappropriated the available manpower would be a rather charitable assessment.    A.C. Richards   According to Bill O'Reilly's error-filled bestseller, Killing Lincoln, there were three routes leading out of Washington into Virginia – the Georgetown Aqueduct, Long Bridge, and Benning's Bridge – and just one, the Navy Yard Bridge, leading into Maryland. The Confederacy-friendly path into Maryland was by far the most likely route for an assassin to take, so it naturally was completely ignored.   The first troops to find themselves accidentally on the correct route were led by a David Dana. Dana just happened to be the brother of Assistant Secretary of War Charles Dana, who served directly under Stanton and who decided that the patrol's presence on the trail of the alleged assassins was pointless and instead sent his brother's troops on a wild goose chase. Major O'Beirne also found himself accidentally on the right trail, so he of course was recalled to Washington.   As previously mentioned, Stanton's first dispatch after the shooting of Lincoln was not written until 1:30 AM and was not sent until 2:15 AM, about four hours after the shot was fired. That dispatch made no mention of John Wilkes Booth, despite the fact that numerous witnesses supposedly (but not actually) immediately identified Booth as the assailant. Booth's name didn't appear in a telegram until 4:15 AM, conveniently too late to make the morning papers. A telegram sent to the police chiefs of northern cities contained no mention of the name Booth.   Initial press reports, based on information leaked by Stanton himself, identified John Surratt as the perpetrator of the fictional attack on the Seward family. When it later became known that Surratt was nowhere near Washington at the time of the attack, Lewis Powell/Paine, who bore no physical resemblance whatsoever to John Surratt, was substituted in as the perpetrator of the alleged assassination attempt.      Christopher Columbus Augur     James O'Beirne   The first telegram dispatched by the War Department was a curiously worded message to General Grant, which read: "The President was assassinated tonight at Ford's Theatre at 10:30 tonight & cannot live. The wound is a pistol shot through the head. Secretary Seward & his son Frederick, were also assassinated at their residence & are in a dangerous condition." One would think that it would go without saying that someone who had been "assassinated" would be in "a dangerous condition." Luckily though, neither of the Sewards were actually assassinated, although news of their 'deaths' quickly circulated around Washington.   One of the earliest actions taken by investigators was raiding the room at the Kirkwood Hotel allegedly rented by George Atzerodt for the purpose of assassinating Andrew Johnson. According to Guttridge and Neff, writing in Dark Union, "The room was registered as Atzerodt's but had not been slept in. The Kirkwood's day clerk, who had entered Room 126 earlier that morning, found nothing and said so. His testimony was ignored." When detectives entered that very same empty and unused room, they allegedly uncovered a wealth of evidence.   Supposedly recovered from the room were a bankbook issued to John Wilkes Booth, a loaded revolver, three boxes of pistol cartridges, a map of the southern states, a Bowie knife, and a handkerchief with Booth's mother's name embroidered on it. Booth's room at the National Hotel, Room 228, was similarly raided with additional evidence supposedly recovered, including a business card containing John Surratt's name and a letter from Samuel Arnold conveniently implicating both he and McLaughlin, despite the fact that Arnold and McLaughlin, like Surratt, were nowhere near Washington at the time of the assassination.   "Wanted" posters issued by the War Department were wildly, and probably deliberately, inaccurate. John Surratt's and David Herold's names were both spelled incorrectly, the photo of Herold was of him as a schoolboy, which clearly wasn't an accurate representation of how he looked circa 1865, and the photo of Surratt wasn't John Surratt at all. In a blatant act of historical revisionism, corrected posters were issued much later. One widely circulated poster that was issued after Lewis Paine was already in custody inexplicably offered a reward for Paine and contained a richly detailed 160-word description of the already incarcerated suspect, along with a mere 42-word description of the guy who was still at large, John Wilkes Booth.      Original "Wanted" poster     Revised "Wanted" posters   The first alleged conspirator to be arrested was the hapless Ned Spangler, who was taken into custody at Ford's Theatre on the night of the assassination. Samuel Arnold and Michael McLaughlin, implicated through what appears to have been planted evidence, were arrested on April 17, 1865, the former at Fort Monroe and the latter in Baltimore. Later that night, Mary Surratt and Lewis Powell were both arrested at Surratt's boardinghouse. George Adzerodt was taken into custody in the early morning hours of April 20 in Maryland, following – by one account – a tip from his police detective brother. Dr. Mudd was arrested on April 24, four days after Captain William Wood, a close associate of Stanton and the warden of the Old Capitol Prison, had begun watching his home.   Why authorities drug their feet for several days before arresting Mudd even while rounding up some 2,000 other suspects who ultimately were not charged is another of the many unanswered questions surrounding the Lincoln assassination and its aftermath. In any event, that left just two of the alleged conspirators at large, David Herold and John Wilkes Booth. Finding them was going to require a specially assembled team – a team that would uncannily know just where to go.   The elite posse was assembled by NDP chief Lafayette Baker on April 24. The group thereafter all but made a beeline to the area around Garrett's farm. How they knew to go there is a question not often addressed by historians. For the record, Baker claimed that he was tipped off by "an old Negro," but said person was never identified and he or she never stepped forward to collect the substantial reward offered. A House Committee noted that, "upon what information Colonel Baker proceeded in sending out the expedition … is in no manner disclosed or intimated in his official report."   An 1867 Minority Report of the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives offered what were, by today's standards, shockingly frank assessments of Baker's character, such as, "Although examined on oath, time and again, and on various occasions, it is doubtful whether he [Baker] has in any one thing told the truth even by accident," and "there can be no doubt that of his many previous outrages, entitling him to unenviable immortality, he has added that of willful and deliberate perjury; and we are glad to know that no one member of the committee deems any statement made by him as worthy of the slightest credit. What a blush of shame will tinge the cheek of the American student in future ages, when he reads that this miserable wretch for years held, as it were, in the hollow of his hand, the liberties of the American people."   The posse assembled by Baker was led by his cousin, Lt. Luther Baker, and Lt. Col. Everton Conger, who had served as an aide to Lafayette Baker. Both had returned to civilian life and were recruited specifically to lead the mission. They were joined by Lt. Edward Doherty and a detachment of twenty-five soldiers. After completing the mission, all involved signed quitclaims and collected a substantial amount of reward money. One of the troopers, as fate would have it, had met Booth previously; some 33 years later, on April 20, 1898, he issued the following published statement: "It was not Booth nor did it resemble him …" Many Americans had reached that conclusion years earlier.      Edward Doherty      Everton Conger   At the Garrett home, the guy later identified as John Wilkes Booth introduced himself as John W. Boyd. Herold was introduced as his cousin, David Boyd. During the standoff in the barn with the pair's would-be captors, the name "Booth" was never spoken. When Herold surrendered and exited the barn, leaving his companion behind, he insisted that he did not know the other man, who he claimed was named Boyd. Boyd/Booth was wearing a Rebel uniform and did not have on a ring that Booth reportedly always wore.   It was not until he had been shot and lay dying that the suspected assassin was addressed by Luther Baker as "Booth." According to Baker's account, the mortally wounded man "seemed surprised, opened his eyes wide, and looked about," as if he too was looking for the elusive John Wilkes Booth. At 7:15 AM on the morning of April 26, 1865, Booth/Boyd drew his last breath, some two-and-a-half hours after being shot, allegedly by Boston Corbett.   Mainstream authors and historians have labored long and hard to convince readers that Booth's body was positively identified, leaving no doubt in the public mind that justice had been served. James Swanson, for example, has written in Manhunt that, "On the Montauk, several men who knew Booth in life, including his doctor and dentist, were summoned aboard the ironclad to witness him in death. It was all very official. The War Department even issued an elaborate receipt to the notary who witnessed the testimony. During a careful autopsy …" The same James Swanson has also written, in Lincoln's Assassins, that, "When the assassin's body was brought back to Washington, the government took rigorous steps to confirm the identity of the man killed at Garrett's farm … Witnesses who knew Booth in life were summoned to identify him in death." William Hanchett, in The Lincoln Murder Conspiracies (his contemptible attempt to 'debunk' so-called 'conspiracy theories'), has claimed that "Booth's body was identified beyond any possibility of a mix-up at a coroner's inquest on April 27, 1865."   All such proclamations are rather brazen and unconscionable acts of historical revisionism. The reality is that the body was not autopsied and it was processed in-and-out of Washington in record time. A mere forty hours passed between the death of the man at Garrett's farm and the secret, late night disposal of his body, and that included the time needed to transport the corpse back to Washington. To this day, that initial burial site remains a mystery and several different versions of the disposal of the body have been published.   For reasons never explained in the historical record, the body was not transported back to Washington by the military detachment, but was instead escorted by only three men: Luther Baker, prisoner Willie Jett, and one unnamed soldier. Before reaching Washington, Jett somehow managed to, uhmm, 'escape.' The body was carried by steamer up the Potomac River, then transported by tugboat to the Washington Navy Yard and placed aboard the ironclad Montauk in the dead of night, at 1:45 AM on April 27, 1865, bypassing normal procedures. Before the day was done, the body would be covertly disposed of. The captain of the Montauk would later say that he "was not present at either time (arrival or disposal) or I should have put a stop to it." The commandant of the Navy Yard would add that, "The removal of the body was entirely without my knowledge, an unusual transaction."     Prosecutor John Bingham (left) and Judge Advocate Joseph Holt (center)   Dispatched to the Montauk to oversee the identification of the body were such disreputable characters as Surgeon General Barnes, Judge Advocate Joseph Holt, prosecutor/persecutor John Bingham, Stanton underlings Thomas Eckert and Lafayette Baker, and two of Baker's most trusted men, Luther Baker and Everton Conger. Edwin Stanton had ordered Lafayette Baker and Thomas Eckert to personally intercept the boat carrying the body and clandestinely get it aboard the Montauk.   During the alleged inquest, none of Booth's peers in the theater community, many of whom were present in Washington at the time, were brought onboard to ID the body. No members of the Booth family were enlisted to view the body. None of Booth's alleged co-conspirators, many of whom were being held on the very same ship, were allowed to ID the body. According to Dark Union, "thirteen people were permitted to view the body. All but the war photographer Alexander Gardner, his assistant, and a hotel clerk were connected with the War Department." If we're being honest here, that should read, "all but possibly the hotel clerk were connected with the War Department."   Even within the government's handpicked and limited cast of witnesses, there was disagreement as to whether the body was that of Booth. Dr. John Frederick May, who had previously seen Booth as a patient, noted that "there is no resemblance in that corpse to Booth, nor can I believe it to be him." May added that the corpse "looks to me much older, and in appearance much more freckled than he was. I do not recollect that he was at all freckled." Dr. May would later write that the corpse's "right limb was greatly contused, and perfectly black from a fracture of one of the long bones." Surgeon General Barnes' report to Stanton, however, held that it was "the left leg and foot" that were injured and "encased in an appliance of splints and bandages," thus clouding the waters even on such straightforward issues as which of the corpse's legs was injured.      Dr. John Frederick May   After the hasty identification charade, and without anyone who was actually close to Booth in life having seen the body, and without any public display of the body, and without any photographs of the body that would ever see the light of day, the corpse was quickly disposed of by either Lafayette Baker and Thomas Eckert, or Lafayette and Luther Baker, depending upon who is telling the tale. Following the announcement that the body had been disappeared, shouts of "hoax!" rocked Washington, with many convinced that Booth hadn't been captured or killed and was still free.   On July 28, 1866, Senator Garrett Davis of Kentucky voiced his doubts about the identification of Booth: "I have never seen any satisfactory evidence that Booth was killed." Senator Reverdy Johnson of Maryland, who had played a role in the mock trial, came back with: "I submit to my friend from Kentucky that there are some things that we must take judicial notice of, just as well as that Julius Caesar is dead."   Davis though remained decidedly unconvinced: "I would rather have better testimony of the fact. I want it proved that Booth was in that barn. I cannot conceive, if he was in the barn, why he was not taken alive. I have never seen anybody, or the evidence of anybody, that identified Booth after he is said to have been killed. Why so much secrecy about it? … There is a mystery and a most inexplicable mystery to my mind about the whole affair … [Booth] could have been captured just as well alive as dead. It would have been much more satisfactory to have brought him up here alive and to have inquired of him to reveal the whole transaction … [or] bring his body up here … let all who had seen him playing, all who associated with him on the stage or in the green room or at the taverns and other public places, have had access to his body to have identified it."      Senator Reverdy Johnson      Senator Garrett Davis   There was no way the powers-that-be were going to allow that to happen, of course, since the body clearly wasn't that of John Wilkes Booth. Had it been, the government surely would have taken the actions necessary to convince a skeptical public. But such actions weren't really necessary in 1865, just as they aren't today. The omnipotent ones can tell us, for example, that Osama bin Laden was killed and his body promptly disposed of – and the majority of us will accept it as the gospel truth.   And those malcontents who choose not to accept a proclamation that lacks any objective proof? Well, they don't really matter. Just as the voices of reason didn't really matter 150 years ago.   Source:  Why Everything You Think You Know About the Lincoln Assassination is Wrong, Part XII | The Center for an Informed America     RIP Dave McGowan March 25, 1960–November 22, 2015 Satanic Occult Symbols In Washington D.C. The pentagon is an infinite occult symbol — it is the center of a pentagram and a pentagram fits perfectly inside a pentagon.   Obelisks are erect phallic (penis) symbols related to the Egyptian Sun god, Ra. The four sides of the Washington Monument are aligned with the cardinal directions (i.e., east, west, north, and south). At the ground level, each side of the monument measures 55.5 feet in width, which is equal to 666 inches each side. The height of the obelisk is 555.5 feet, which is equal to 6,666 inches. The Exact Ratio Of King Nebuchadnezzar's Golden Image (which was 90 x 9 feet, a 10-to-1 ratio). The new grand PHALLUS (obelisk) symbol representing the sinister power of the global Illuminati elite is the ONE WORLD TRADE CENTER, replacing the old World Trade Center in New York. The new architectural wonder is exactly 1,776 feet tall, featuring The Great Pyramid in it's design. This evidence that the satanic plot for World Government has existed for millennia and is perpetuated from generation to generation by occult organizations. "The word 'obelisk' literally means 'Baal's Shaft' or Baal's organ of reproduction. This should be especially shocking when we realize that we have a gigantic obelisk in our nation's capital known as the Washington Monument." The Illuminati's push for global governance began in 1775 and became more visible the following year in 1776 during the Revolutionary War. While the 13 colonies broke from Britain, their leadership included high-ranking Freemasons. George Washington was a senior Mason, along with multiple signers of the Declaration of Independence. Washington D.C.'s layout and monuments carry clear Masonic symbols. The mall in Washington DC is laid out so the gardens and streets form the image of an owl. The owl is representative of the mythical goddess, Lilith. The street design in Washington, D.C., has been laid out in such a manner that certain Satanic symbols are depicted by the streets, cul-de-sacs and rotaries. This design was created in 1791, a few years after Freemasonry assumed the leadership of the New World Order, in 1782. George Washington (a 33° Freemason) selected French Freemason Pierre Charles L'Enfant to design the city's layout in Washington D.C. The boundaries of the city, established by George Washington in 1791, form a square 10 miles long on each side, centered on the originally proposed location for the Washington Monument. The east-west diagonal of the square crosses over the Capitol building and the north-south diagonal crosses over the White House. The length of the north-south and east-west diagonals is 10 miles times the square root of 2, or 14.142 miles. This distance converts to 43,455 ancient Egyptian royal cubits, the same figure as the ratio between the Great Pyramid and the dimensions of the earth. The height of the Great Pyramid is 481.13 feet, divided by 5,280 = .0911231 miles. The mean radius of the earth is 3,960 miles, divided by .0911231 = 43,457. The perimeter of the Great Pyramid is 3,023 feet, divided by 5,280 = .5725 miles. The mean circumference of the earth is 24,880 miles, divided by .5725 = 43,458. 3,960 miles (radius of the earth) / 14.142 miles = 280 (number of cubits in the height of the Great Pyramid) 24,880 miles (circumference of the earth) / 14.142 miles = 1,760 (cubits in the perimeter of the Great Pyramid) Converting the radius and circumference of the earth to cubits yields the same results.   If you draw the pentagram and hexagram symbols together, you can see three sides of a cross. Finishing the symbol on the land sitting in front of the White House reveals a perfectly symmetrical Knights Templar cross.   The 4 sides of the Washington Monument are aligned with the cardinal directions (i.e., east, west, north, and south). At the ground level each side of the monument measures 55.5 feet long, which is equal to 666 inches. The height of the obelisk is 555.5 feet, which is equal to 6,666 inches. The obelisk is representative of the male sex organ, worship in nearly all pagan cultures. It is a symbol of man's carnal power and might. Satanism and the occult are saturated with sexual perversion, child-molesting, and human sacrifices. Most worshippers in these groups deny such claims, but some have openly professed it,   Above the dome of the Capitol building stands Lady Libertas, the goddess Isis.   Guarding the entrance to the Capitol building is Nimrod (Baal) in the likeness of the Roman god Mars, whom the Egyptians called Osiris. As you can see from the image below this entrance is identical to that of the Roman Pantheon of the Gods - as well as the Greek Pantheon.   There are several significant buildings in the District of Columbia with these ancient designs, including The White House.   The central part of the Supreme Court building is modeled after the Temple of Artemis, one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world.   The George Washington Masonic Memorial, modeled after descriptions of the Pharos of Alexandria - another wonder of the ancient world, sits across the Potomac in Alexandria, Virginia just inside the diagonal square border of D.C.   This statue of Washington in the Smithsonian Museum of American History was modeled after descriptions of the statue of Zeus at Olympia, one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world. The museum is aligned to the cardinal directions; the statue sits at the western end of the main floor facing east. Compare this portrayal of Washington to the images of Zeus and Baphomet    "Historian/author Ralph Epperson has spent many years researching the history of the Great Seal and has discovered that those who designed the two circles committed America to what has been called 'A Secret Destiny.' This future 'destiny' is so unpleasant that those who wanted the changes it entails had to conceal that truth in symbols."   Condoleezza Rice at the United Nations in 2005 with the numbers 666 behind her.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant">Timeline *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant">c. 1440 BC (traditional date) — Exodus *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> c. 1200–1000 BC — Late Bronze Age Collapse Major civilizations across the Eastern Mediterranean collapse. Trade networks break down. Often viewed as one of the greatest disruptions of the ancient world. 722 BC — Fall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel Assyrian Conquest of Israel. Assyria conquers the Kingdom of Israel. Associated with the "Ten Lost Tribes" tradition. 586 BC — First Temple Destroyed Babylon conquers Jerusalem. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> The First Temple refers to the temple built in Jerusalem that is traditionally associated with King Solomon. A very simple timeline: c. 960 BC (traditional date) First Temple Built According to the Hebrew Bible, Solomon builds a temple in Jerusalem. It becomes the central religious site for the Kingdom of Israel. The most sacred object inside was the Ark of the Covenant, which was said to contain the stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. 930 BC Kingdom Splits After Solomon's reign, the kingdom divides into: Northern Kingdom (Israel) Southern Kingdom (Judah) Jerusalem and the Temple remain in Judah. 722 BC Northern Kingdom Falls The Neo-Assyrian Empire conquers the northern kingdom. Judah and Jerusalem survive for another century. 586 BC First Temple Destroyed Nebuchadnezzar II and the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquer Jerusalem. The city is burned. The Temple is destroyed. Many leading inhabitants are deported to Babylon. This period is known as the Babylonian Exile. This is the event your timeline entry refers to. What happened to the Ark? Nobody knows for certain. The Ark of the Covenant disappears from reliable historical records before or during the Babylonian conquest. Theories include: Destroyed during the invasion. Hidden by priests. Taken to another region. Never existed as described in later traditions. There is no confirmed archaeological evidence showing what became of it. 539 BC Babylon Falls Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire conquers Babylon. c. 516 BC Second Temple Built The Persians allow Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple. This rebuilt structure becomes known as the Second Temple. 70 AD Second Temple Destroyed The Roman Empire destroys Jerusalem and the Second Temple during a Jewish revolt. So when you see: 586 BC — First Temple Destroyed it is shorthand for: "The Babylonians captured Jerusalem, destroyed Solomon's Temple, and carried many inhabitants into exile in Babylon." That event is one of the major turning points in Jewish history because it marks the end of the First Temple era and the beginning of the Babylonian Exile. 539 BC — Cyrus the Great Persian Empire conquers Babylon. Jews permitted to return. 516 BC — Second Temple Completed Jerusalem's Second Temple is completed after the return from Babylonian exile. Begins the Second Temple period that lasts until 70 AD. 27 BC — Roman Empire Established Augustus becomes Rome's first emperor. Marks the transition from Republic to Empire. 1st Century AD — Origins of Christianity and the Early Church Christianity emerges within the Roman Empire. The Catholic Church traces its origins to this period. AD 43–47 — Romans Establish London (Londinium) Shortly after the Roman conquest of Britain, the Romans establish London. 70 AD — Destruction of the Second Temple Roman forces destroy the Second Temple in Jerusalem. 313 AD — Edict of Milan Christianity legalized within the Roman Empire. 325 AD — First Council of Nicaea Establishes foundational Christian doctrine. Produces the Nicene Creed. 380 AD — Christianity Becomes State Religion Edict of Thessalonica. Christianity becomes the official religion of the Roman Empire. 476 AD — Fall of the Western Roman Empire Traditionally marks the end of the ancient Roman Empire in Western Europe. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 570 AD — Birth of Muhammad refers to Muhammad, the central figure of Islam. 570 AD — Muhammad is born in Mecca (in present-day Saudi Arabia). 610 AD — According to Islamic tradition, he begins receiving revelations from God through the angel Gabriel. 622 AD — The Hijra, his migration from Mecca to Medina. This event marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. 632 AD — Muhammad dies in Medina. What is the connection to the Quran? Muslims believe the Quran is the word of God revealed to Muhammad over about 23 years. Muhammad did not write the Quran himself according to Islamic tradition. The revelations were: Recited by Muhammad, Memorized by followers, Written down by scribes, Collected into the Quran after his death. 570 AD — Birth of Muhammad "Birth of the man through whom the Quran was revealed, according to Islamic belief." Just as: Jesus is central to Christianity, Moses is central to Judaism, Muhammad is the central prophetic figure in Islam. Muhammad's First Marriage Around age 25, Muhammad married Khadija bint Khuwaylid, a wealthy widow who was older than he was (traditionally reported to be about 40). They remained married for about 25 years. During Khadija's lifetime, Muhammad is generally described in Islamic sources as having no other wives. Khadija is highly revered in Islam. Later Marriages After Khadija's death, Muhammad married several women. Traditional Islamic explanations include: Providing support for widows of fallen followers. Forming alliances among tribes. Caring for women who lacked economic protection in a tribal society. Historians note that marriage in 7th-century Arabia often had social, political, and economic functions beyond modern romantic expectations. The Most Controversial Question: Aisha The most debated marriage is to Aisha. Traditional Islamic sources, including some hadith collections, report that: Aisha was betrothed at a young age. The marriage was consummated when she was nine years old. Many Muslims accept these traditional reports as historically accurate. However, some modern Muslim scholars argue that: The age reports may be incorrect. Other historical clues suggest she may have been older, perhaps in her teens. The evidence is debated, and there is no universal agreement. Why Is This Controversial Today? Modern societies generally view marriage to a nine-year-old as unacceptable and harmful. Defenders of the traditional account often argue: Standards for marriage differed across ancient and medieval societies. One should evaluate historical figures within their historical context. Critics argue: Regardless of historical norms, such an age is ethically problematic. Historical Context Child marriages occurred in many parts of the ancient and medieval world, including: Europe, The Middle East, Asia, Some royal and noble families. That context helps explain why such marriages occurred historically, though it does not resolve modern ethical debates about them. What Historians Generally Agree On Most historians agree that: Muhammad was a real historical figure. He married multiple wives. Aisha was one of those wives. Traditional Islamic sources report a very young age for Aisha. The main disagreement is whether the traditional age reports are fully reliable and how those reports should be interpreted today. 610 AD — First Quranic Revelations 622 AD — Hijra Migration from Mecca to Medina. Beginning of the Islamic calendar. 632–750 AD — Early Islamic Expansion Creates one of the largest empires in history. 711 AD — Muslim Conquest of Iberia Umayyad Conquest of Hispania. Islamic rule begins in much of Spain. Major turning point in European and Islamic history. 800 AD — Charlemagne Crowned Emperor Crowned Emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III. Foundation event for the Holy Roman Empire tradition. 886 AD — Alfred the Great Reoccupies London London is fortified following Viking invasions. The modern City of London traces many of its legal traditions and boundaries to the medieval period. 925–1384 — The Low Countries within the Holy Roman Empire The regions that later become Belgium and the Netherlands remain linked to the Kingdom of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire. c. 950 AD — First Documented Habsburg Family Earliest historical references to the Habsburg dynasty. 962 AD — Holy Roman Empire Formally Established Coronation of Otto I. Otto I crowned emperor. Often regarded as the formal beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. c. 1000–1200 — Romani Migration Appears in Historical Records Migration from India gradually becomes visible in European records. 1020 AD — Habsburg Castle Built The castle from which the Habsburg family takes its name. 1054 AD — Great Schism Formal split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Shapes later divisions between Western Europe, Byzantium, Russia, and the Balkans. 1066 AD — Norman Conquest of England One of the most consequential events in English history. Reshapes law, land ownership, language, and government. 1095–1291 — Crusades Series of wars involving Christian and Muslim powers. Influences trade, politics, and religious relations for centuries. The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part I: The Eight Families The Four Horsemen of Banking (Bank of America, JP Morgan Chase, Citigroup and Wells Fargo) own the Four Horsemen of Oil (Exxon Mobil, Royal Dutch/Shell, BP Amoco and Chevron Texaco); in tandem with Deutsche Bank, BNP, Barclays and other European old money behemoths.  But their monopoly over the global economy does not end at the edge of the oil patch. According to company 10K filings to the SEC, the Four Horsemen of Banking are among the top ten stock holders of virtually every Fortune 500 corporation. [1] So who then are the stockholders in these money center banks? This information is guarded much more closely. My queries to bank regulatory agencies regarding stock ownership in the top 25 US bank holding companies were given Freedom of Information Act status, before being denied on "national security" grounds.  This is rather ironic, since many of the bank's stockholders reside in Europe. One important repository for the wealth of the global oligarchy that owns these bank holding companies is US Trust Corporation – founded in 1853 and now owned by Bank of America.  A recent US Trust Corporate Director and Honorary Trustee was Walter Rothschild.  Other directors included Daniel Davison of JP Morgan Chase, Richard Tucker of Exxon Mobil, Daniel Roberts of Citigroup and Marshall Schwartz of Morgan Stanley. [2] J. W. McCallister, an oil industry insider with House of Saud connections, wrote in The Grim Reaper that information he acquired from Saudi bankers cited 80% ownership of the New York Federal Reserve Bank- by far the most powerful Fed branch- by just eight families, four of which reside in the US.  They are the Goldman Sachs, Rockefellers, Lehmans and Kuhn Loebs of New York; the Rothschilds of Paris and London; the Warburgs of Hamburg; the Lazards of Paris; and the Israel Moses Seifs of Rome. CPA Thomas D. Schauf corroborates McCallister's claims, adding that ten banks control all twelve Federal Reserve Bank branches.  He names N.M. Rothschild of London, Rothschild Bank of Berlin, Warburg Bank of Hamburg, Warburg Bank of Amsterdam, Lehman Brothers of New York, Lazard Brothers of Paris, Kuhn Loeb Bank of New York, Israel Moses Seif Bank of Italy, Goldman Sachs of New York and JP Morgan Chase Bank of New York.  Schauf lists William Rockefeller, Paul Warburg, Jacob Schiff and James Stillman as individuals who own large shares of the Fed. [3]  The Schiffs are insiders at Kuhn Loeb. The Stillmans are Citigroup insiders, who married into the Rockefeller clan at the turn of the century. Eustace Mullins came to the same conclusions in his book The Secrets of the Federal Reserve, in which he displays charts connecting the Fed and its member banks to the families of Rothschild, Warburg, Rockefeller and the others. [4] The control that these banking families exert over the global economy cannot be overstated and is quite intentionally shrouded in secrecy.  Their corporate media arm is quick to discredit any information exposing this private central banking cartel as "conspiracy theory".  Yet the facts remain. The House of Morgan The Federal Reserve Bank was born in 1913, the same year US banking scion J. Pierpont Morgan died and the Rockefeller Foundation was formed.  The House of Morgan presided over American finance from the corner of Wall Street and Broad, acting as quasi-US central bank since 1838, when George Peabody founded it in London. Peabody was a business associate of the Rothschilds.  In 1952 Fed researcher Eustace Mullins put forth the supposition that the Morgans were nothing more than Rothschild agents.  Mullins wrote that the Rothschilds, "…preferred to operate anonymously in the US behind the facade of J.P. Morgan & Company". [5] Author Gabriel Kolko stated, "Morgan's activities in 1895-1896 in selling US gold bonds in Europe were based on an alliance with the House of Rothschild." [6] The Morgan financial octopus wrapped its tentacles quickly around the globe. Morgan Grenfell operated in London. Morgan et Ce ruled Paris. The Rothschild's Lambert cousins set up Drexel & Company in Philadelphia. The House of Morgan catered to the Astors, DuPonts, Guggenheims, Vanderbilts and Rockefellers.  It financed the launch of AT&T, General Motors, General Electric and DuPont.  Like the London-based Rothschild and Barings banks, Morgan became part of the power structure in many countries. By 1890 the House of Morgan was lending to Egypt's central bank, financing Russian railroads, floating Brazilian provincial government bonds and funding Argentine public works projects.  A recession in 1893 enhanced Morgan's power.  That year Morgan saved the US government from a bank panic, forming a syndicate to prop up government reserves with a shipment of $62 million worth of Rothschild gold. [7] Morgan was the driving force behind Western expansion in the US, financing and controlling West-bound railroads through voting trusts.  In 1879 Cornelius Vanderbilt's Morgan-financed New York Central Railroad gave preferential shipping rates to John D. Rockefeller's budding Standard Oil monopoly, cementing the Rockefeller/Morgan relationship. The House of Morgan now fell under Rothschild and Rockefeller family control.  A New York Herald headline read, "Railroad Kings Form Gigantic Trust".  J. Pierpont Morgan, who once stated, "Competition is a sin", now opined gleefully, "Think of it.  All competing railroad traffic west of St. Louis placed in the control of about thirty men."[8] Morgan and Edward Harriman's banker Kuhn Loeb held a monopoly over the railroads, while banking dynasties Lehman, Goldman Sachs and Lazard joined the Rockefellers in controlling the US industrial base. [9] In 1903 Banker's Trust was set up by the Eight Families.  Benjamin Strong of Banker's Trust was the first Governor of the New York Federal Reserve Bank.  The 1913 creation of the Fed fused the power of the Eight Families to the military and diplomatic might of the US government.  If their overseas loans went unpaid, the oligarchs could now deploy US Marines to collect the debts.  Morgan, Chase and Citibank formed an international lending syndicate. The House of Morgan was cozy with the British House of Windsor and the Italian House of Savoy.  The Kuhn Loebs, Warburgs, Lehmans, Lazards, Israel Moses Seifs and Goldman Sachs also had close ties to European royalty.  By 1895 Morgan controlled the flow of gold in and out of the US.  The first American wave of mergers was in its infancy and was being promoted by the bankers.  In 1897 there were sixty-nine industrial mergers.  By 1899 there were twelve-hundred. In 1904 John Moody – founder of Moody's Investor Services – said it was impossible to talk of Rockefeller and Morgan interests as separate. [10] Public distrust of the combine spread.  Many considered them traitors working for European old money.  Rockefeller's Standard Oil, Andrew Carnegie's US Steel and Edward Harriman's railroads were all financed by banker Jacob Schiff at Kuhn Loeb, who worked closely with the European Rothschilds. Several Western states banned the bankers. Populist preacher William Jennings Bryan was thrice the Democratic nominee for President from 1896 -1908.  The central theme of his anti-imperialist campaign was that America was falling into a trap of "financial servitude to British capital".  William Howard Taft defeated Bryan in 1908, but by that time Taft's predecessor and mentor Teddy Roosevelt had been forced by this spreading populist wildfire to enact the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.  He then went after the Standard Oil Trust. In 1912 the Pujo hearings were held, addressing concentration of power on Wall Street.  That same year Mrs. Edward Harriman sold her substantial shares in New York's Guaranty Trust Bank to J.P. Morgan, creating Morgan Guaranty Trust.  Judge Louis Brandeis convinced President Woodrow Wilson to call for an end to interlocking board directorates.  In 1914 the Clayton Anti-Trust Act was passed. Jack Morgan – J. Pierpont's son and successor – responded by calling on Morgan clients Remington and Winchester to increase arms production. He argued that the US needed to enter WWI.  Goaded by the Carnegie Foundation and other oligarchy fronts, Wilson accommodated.  As Charles Tansill wrote in America Goes to War, "Even before the clash of arms, the French firm of Rothschild Freres cabled to Morgan & Company in New York suggesting the flotation of a loan of $100 million, a substantial part of which was to be left in the US to pay for French purchases of American goods." The House of Morgan financed half the US war effort, while receiving commissions for lining up contractors like GE, Du Pont, US Steel, Kennecott and ASARCO.  All were Morgan clients.  Morgan also financed the British Boer War in South Africa and the Franco-Prussian War.  The 1919 Paris Peace Conference was presided over by Morgan, which led both German and Allied reconstruction efforts. [11] In the 1930's populism resurfaced in America after Goldman Sachs, Lehman Bank and others profited from the Crash of 1929. [12]  House Banking Committee Chairman Louis McFadden (D-NY) said of the Great Depression, "It was no accident.  It was a carefully contrived occurrence…The international bankers sought to bring about a condition of despair here so they might emerge as rulers of us all". Sen. Gerald Nye (D-ND) chaired a munitions investigation in 1936.  Nye concluded that the House of Morgan had plunged the US into WWI to protect loans and create a booming arms industry.  Nye later produced a document titled The Next War, which cynically referred to "the old goddess of democracy trick", through which Japan could be used to lure the US into WWII. In 1937 Interior Secretary Harold Ickes warned of the influence of "America's 60 Families".  Historian Ferdinand Lundberg later penned a book of the exact same title. Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas decried, "Morgan influence…the most pernicious one in industry and finance today." Jack Morgan responded by nudging the US towards WWII.  Morgan had close relations with the Iwasaki and Dan families – Japan's two wealthiest clans – who have owned Mitsubishi and Mitsui, respectively, since the companies emerged from 17th Century shogunates.  When Japan invaded Manchuria, slaughtering Chinese peasants at Nanking, Morgan downplayed the incident.  Morgan also had close relations with Italian fascist Benito Mussolini, while German Nazi Dr. Hjalmer Schacht was a Morgan Bank liaison during WWII.  After the war Morgan representatives met with Schacht at the Bank of International Settlements (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland. [13] The House of Rockefeller BIS is the most powerful bank in the world, a global central bank for the Eight Families who control the private central banks of almost all Western and developing nations. The first President of BIS was Rockefeller banker Gates McGarrah- an official at Chase Manhattan and the Federal Reserve.  McGarrah was the grandfather of former CIA director Richard Helms.  The Rockefellers- like the Morgans- had close ties to London. David Icke writes in Children of the Matrix, that the Rockefellers and Morgans were just "gofers" for the European Rothschilds. [14] BIS is owned by the Federal Reserve, Bank of England, Bank of Italy, Bank of Canada, Swiss National Bank, Nederlandsche Bank, Bundesbank and Bank of France. Historian Carroll Quigley wrote in his epic book Tragedy and Hope that BIS was part of a plan, "to create a world system of financial control in private hands able to dominate the political system of each country and the economy of the world as a whole…to be controlled in a feudalistic fashion by the central banks of the world acting in concert by secret agreements." The US government had a historical distrust of BIS, lobbying unsuccessfully for its demise at the 1944 post-WWII Bretton Woods Conference.  Instead the Eight Families' power was exacerbated, with the Bretton Woods creation of the IMF and the World Bank.  The US Federal Reserve only took shares in BIS in September 1994. [15] BIS holds at least 10% of monetary reserves for at least 80 of the world's central banks, the IMF and other multilateral institutions.  It serves as financial agent for international agreements, collects information on the global economy and serves as lender of last resort to prevent global financial collapse. BIS promotes an agenda of monopoly capitalist fascism.  It gave a bridge loan to Hungary in the 1990's to ensure privatization of that country's economy.  It served as conduit for Eight Families funding of Adolf Hitler- led by the Warburg's J. Henry Schroeder and Mendelsohn Bank of Amsterdam.  Many researchers assert that BIS is at the nadir of global drug money laundering. [16] It is no coincidence that BIS is headquartered in Switzerland, favorite hiding place for the wealth of the global aristocracy and headquarters for the P-2 Italian Freemason's Alpina Lodge and Nazi International.  Other institutions which the Eight Families control include the World Economic Forum, the International Monetary Conference and the World Trade Organization. Bretton Woods was a boon to the Eight Families.  The IMF and World Bank were central to this "new world order".  In 1944 the first World Bank bonds were floated by Morgan Stanley and First Boston.  The French Lazard family became more involved in House of Morgan interests.  Lazard Freres- France's biggest investment bank- is owned by the Lazard and David-Weill families- old Genoese banking scions represented by Michelle Davive.  A recent Chairman and CEO of Citigroup was Sanford Weill. In 1968 Morgan Guaranty launched Euro-Clear, a Brussels-based bank clearing system for Eurodollar securities. It was the first such automated endeavor.  Some took to calling Euro-Clear "The Beast".  Brussels serves as headquarters for the new European Central Bank and for NATO.  In 1973 Morgan officials met secretly in Bermuda to illegally resurrect the old House of Morgan, twenty years before the Glass Steagal Act was repealed.  Morgan and the Rockefellers provided the financial backing for Merrill Lynch, boosting it into the Big 5 of US investment banking. Merrill is now part of Bank of America. John D. Rockefeller used his oil wealth to acquire Equitable Trust, which had gobbled up several large banks and corporations by the 1920's.  The Great Depression helped consolidate Rockefeller's power.  His Chase Bank merged with Kuhn Loeb's Manhattan Bank to form Chase Manhattan, cementing a long-time family relationship.  The Kuhn-Loeb's had financed – along with Rothschilds – Rockefeller's quest to become king of the oil patch.  National City Bank of Cleveland provided John D. with the money needed to embark upon his monopolization of the US oil industry.  The bank was identified in Congressional hearings as being one of three Rothschild-owned banks in the US during the 1870's, when Rockefeller first incorporated as Standard Oil of Ohio. [17] One Rockefeller Standard Oil partner was Edward Harkness, whose family came to control Chemical Bank.  Another was James Stillman, whose family controlled Manufacturers Hanover Trust.  Both banks have merged under the JP Morgan Chase umbrella.  Two of James Stillman's daughters married two of William Rockefeller's sons. The two families control a big chunk of Citigroup as well. [18] In the insurance business, the Rockefellers control Metropolitan Life, Equitable Life, Prudential and New York Life.  Rockefeller banks control 25% of all assets of the 50 largest US commercial banks and 30% of all assets of the 50 largest insurance companies. [19]  Insurance companies- the first in the US was launched by Freemasons through their Woodman's of America- play a key role in the Bermuda drug money shuffle. Companies under Rockefeller control include Exxon Mobil, Chevron Texaco, BP Amoco, Marathon Oil, Freeport McMoran, Quaker Oats, ASARCO, United, Delta, Northwest, ITT, International Harvester, Xerox, Boeing, Westinghouse, Hewlett-Packard, Honeywell, International Paper, Pfizer, Motorola, Monsanto, Union Carbide and General Foods. The Rockefeller Foundation has close financial ties to both Ford and Carnegie Foundations.  Other family philanthropic endeavors include Rockefeller Brothers Fund, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, General Education Board, Rockefeller University and the University of Chicago- which churns out a steady stream of far right economists as apologists for international capital, including Milton Friedman. The family owns 30 Rockefeller Plaza, where the national Christmas tree is lighted every year, and Rockefeller Center.  David Rockefeller was instrumental in the construction of the World Trade Center towers.  The main Rockefeller family home is a hulking complex in upstate New York known as Pocantico Hills.  They also own a 32-room 5th Avenue duplex in Manhattan, a mansion in Washington, DC, Monte Sacro Ranch in Venezuela, coffee plantations in Ecuador, several farms in Brazil, an estate at Seal Harbor, Maine and resorts in the Caribbean, Hawaii and Puerto Rico. [20] The Dulles and Rockefeller families are cousins.  Allen Dulles created the CIA, assisted the Nazis, covered up the Kennedy hit from his Warren Commission perch and struck a deal with the Muslim Brotherhood to create mind-controlled assassins. [21] Brother John Foster Dulles presided over the phony Goldman Sachs trusts before the 1929 stock market crash and helped his brother overthrow governments in Iran and Guatemala.  Both were Skull & Bones, Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) insiders and 33rd Degree Masons. [22] The Rockefellers were instrumental in forming the depopulation-oriented Club of Rome at their family estate in Bellagio, Italy.  Their Pocantico Hills estate gave birth to the Trilateral Commission.  The family is a major funder of the eugenics movement which spawned Hitler, human cloning and the current DNA obsession in US scientific circles. John Rockefeller Jr. headed the Population Council until his death. [23]  His namesake son is a Senator from West Virginia.  Brother Winthrop Rockefeller was Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas and the most powerful man in that state until he died in 2006.  In an October 1975 interview with Playboy magazine, Vice-President Nelson Rockefeller- who was also Governor of New York- articulated his family's patronizing worldview, "I am a great believer in planning- economic, social, political, military, total world planning." But of all the Rockefeller brothers, it is Trilateral Commission (TC) founder and former Chase Manhattan Chairman David who has spearheaded the family's fascist agenda on a global scale.  He defended the Shah of Iran, the South African apartheid regime and the Chilean Pinochet junta.  He was the biggest financier of the CFR, the TC and (during the Vietnam War) the Committee for an Effective and Durable Peace in Asia- a contract bonanza for those who made their living off the conflict. Nixon asked him to be Secretary of Treasury, but Rockefeller declined the job, knowing his power was much greater at the helm of the Chase.  Author Gary Allen writes in The Rockefeller File that in 1973, "David Rockefeller met with twenty-seven heads of state, including the rulers of Russia and Red China." Following the 1975 Nugan Hand Bank/CIA coup against Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, his British Crown-appointed successor Malcolm Fraser sped to the US, where he met with President Gerald Ford after conferring with David Rockefeller. [24] *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-18" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-18" data-testid= "conversation-turn-38" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part II: The Freemason BUS & The House of Rothschild In 1789 Alexander Hamilton became the first Treasury Secretary of the United States.  Hamilton was one of many Founding Fathers who were Freemasons. He had close relations with the Rothschild family which owns the Bank of England and leads the European Freemason movement.  George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Ethan Allen, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Brown and Roger Sherman were all Masons. Roger Livingston helped Sherman and Franklin write the Declaration of Independence. He gave George Washington his oaths of office while he was Grand Master of the New York Grand Lodge of Freemasons.  Washington himself was Grand Master of the Virginia Lodge.  Of the General Officers in the Revolutionary Army, thirty-three were Masons.  This was highly symbolic since 33rd Degree Masons become Illuminated. [1] Populist founding fathers led by John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and Thomas Paine- none of whom were Masons- wanted to completely severe ties with the British Crown, but were overruled by the Masonic faction led by Washington, Hamilton and Grand Master of the St. Andrews Lodge in Boston General Joseph Warren, who wanted to "defy Parliament but remain loyal to the Crown". St. Andrews Lodge was the hub of New World Masonry and began issuing Knights Templar Degrees in 1769. [2] All US Masonic lodges are to this day warranted by the British Crown, whom they serve as a global intelligence and counterrevolutionary subversion network. Their most recent initiative is the Masonic Child Identification Program (CHIP). According to Wikipedia, the CHIP programs allow parents the opportunity to create a kit of identifying materials for their child, free of charge. The kit contains a fingerprint card, a physical description, a video, computer disk, or DVD of the child, a dental imprint, and a DNA sample. The First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia in 1774 under the Presidency of Peyton Randolph, who succeeded Washington as Grand Master of the Virginia Lodge.  The Second Continental Congress convened in 1775 under the Presidency of Freemason John Hancock.  Peyton's brother William succeeded him as Virginia Lodge Grand Master and became the leading proponent of centralization and federalism at the First Constitutional Convention in 1787.  The federalism at the heart of the US Constitution is identical to the federalism laid out in the Freemason's Anderson's Constitutions of 1723. William Randolph became the nation's first Attorney General and Secretary of State under George Washington. His family returned to England loyal to the Crown.  John Marshall, the nation's first Supreme Court Justice, was also a Mason. [3] When Benjamin Franklin journeyed to France to seek financial help for American revolutionaries, his meetings took place at Rothschild banks.  He brokered arms sales via German Mason Baron von Steuben.  His Committees of Correspondence operated through Freemason channels and paralleled a British spy network.  In 1776 Franklin became de facto Ambassador to France.  In 1779 he became Grand Master of the French Neuf Soeurs (Nine Sisters) Lodge, to which John Paul Jones and Voltaire belonged.  Franklin was also a member of the more secretive Royal Lodge of Commanders of the Temple West of Carcasonne, whose members included Frederick Prince of Whales. While Franklin preached temperance in the US, he cavorted wildly with his Lodge brothers in Europe.  Franklin served as Postmaster General from the 1750's to 1775 – a role traditionally relegated to British spies. With Rothschild financing Alexander Hamilton founded two New York banks, including Bank of New York. He died in a gun battle with Aaron Burr, who founded Bank of Manhattan with Kuhn Loeb financing.  Hamilton exemplified the contempt which the Eight Families hold towards common people, once stating, "All communities divide themselves into the few and the many.  The first are the rich and the well born, the others the mass of the people…The people are turbulent and changing; they seldom judge and determine right.  Give therefore to the first class a distinct, permanent share of government.  They will check the unsteadiness of the second." Hamilton was only the first in a series of Eight Families cronies to hold the key position of Treasury Secretary.  In recent times Kennedy Treasury Secretary Douglas Dillon came from Dillon Read (now part of UBS Warburg). Nixon Treasury Secretaries David Kennedy and William Simon came from Continental Illinois Bank (now part of Bank of America) and Salomon Brothers (now part of Citigroup), respectively. Carter Treasury Secretary Michael Blumenthal came from Goldman Sachs, Reagan Treasury Secretary Donald Regan came from Merrill Lynch (now part of Bank of America), Bush Sr. Treasury Secretary Nicholas Brady came from Dillon Read (UBS Warburg) and both Clinton Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin and Bush Jr. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson came from Goldman Sachs. Obama Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner worked at Kissinger Associates and the New York Fed. Thomas Jefferson argued that the United States needed a publicly-owned central bank so that European monarchs and aristocrats could not use the printing of money to control the affairs of the new nation.  Jefferson extolled, "A country which expects to remain ignorant and free…expects that which has never been and that which will never be.  There is scarcely a King in a hundred who would not, if he could, follow the example of Pharaoh – get first all the people's money, then all their lands and then make them and their children servants forever…banking establishments are more dangerous than standing armies.  Already they have raised up a money aristocracy." Jefferson watched as the Euro-banking conspiracy to control the United States unfolded, weighing in, "Single acts of tyranny may be ascribed to the accidental opinion of the day, but a series of oppressions begun at a distinguished period, unalterable through every change of ministers, too plainly prove a deliberate, systematic plan of reducing us to slavery". But the Rothschild-sponsored Hamilton's arguments for a private US central bank carried the day.  In 1791 the Bank of the United States (BUS) was founded, with the Rothschilds as main owners.  The bank's charter was to run out in 1811.  Public opinion ran in favor of revoking the charter and replacing it with a Jeffersonian public central bank.  The debate was postponed as the nation was plunged by the Euro-bankers into the War of 1812.  Amidst a climate of fear and economic hardship, Hamilton's bank got its charter renewed in 1816. Old Hickory, Honest Abe & Camelot In 1828 Andrew Jackson took a run at the US Presidency.  Throughout his campaign he railed against the international bankers who controlled the BUS.  Jackson ranted, "You are a den of vipers.  I intend to expose you and by Eternal God I will rout you out.  If the people understood the rank injustices of our money and banking system there would be a revolution before morning." Jackson won the election and revoked the bank's charter stating, "The Act seems to be predicated on an erroneous idea that the present shareholders have a prescriptive right to not only the favor, but the bounty of the government...for their benefit does this Act exclude the whole American people from competition in the purchase of this monopoly.  Present stockholders and those inheriting their rights as successors be established a privileged order, clothed both with great political power and enjoying immense pecuniary advantages from their connection with government.  Should its influence be concentrated under the operation of such an Act as this, in the hands of a self-elected directory whose interests are identified with those of the foreign stockholders, will there not be cause to tremble for the independence of our country in war...controlling our currency, receiving our public monies and holding thousands of our citizens independence, it would be more formidable and dangerous than the naval and military power of the enemy.  It is to be regretted that the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of government for selfish purposes...to make the rich richer and more powerful.  Many of our rich men have not been content with equal protection and equal benefits, but have besought us to make them richer by acts of Congress.  I have done my duty to this country." Populism prevailed and Jackson was re-elected. In 1835 he was the target of an assassination attempt.  The gunman was Richard Lawrence, who confessed that he was, "in touch with the powers in Europe". Still, in 1836 Jackson refused to renew the BUS charter.  Under his watch the US national debt went to zero for the first and last time in our nation's history.  This angered the international bankers, whose primary income is derived from interest payments on debt.  BUS President Nicholas Biddle cut off funding to the US government in 1842, plunging the US into a depression.  Biddle was an agent for the Paris-based Jacob Rothschild. The Mexican War was simultaneously sprung on Jackson. A few years later the Civil War was unleashed, with London bankers backing the Union and French bankers backing the South. The Lehman family made a fortune smuggling arms to the south and cotton to the north.  By 1861 the US was $100 million in debt.  New President Abraham Lincoln snubbed the Euro-bankers again, issuing Lincoln Greenbacks to pay Union Army bills. The Rothschild-controlled Times of London wrote, "If that mischievous policy, which had its origins in the North American Republic, should become indurated down to a fixture, then that Government will furnish its own money without cost. It will pay off its debts and be without debt. It will have all the money necessary to carry on its commerce. It will become prosperous beyond precedent in the history of the civilized governments of the world. The brains and the wealth of all countries will go to North America. That government must be destroyed, or it will destroy every monarchy on the globe." The Euro-banker-written Hazard Circular was exposed and circulated throughout the country by angry populists.  It stated, "The great debt that capitalists will see is made out of the war and must be used to control the valve of money.  To accomplish this government bonds must be used as a banking basis.  We are now awaiting Secretary of Treasury Salmon Chase to make that recommendation.  It will not allow Greenbacks to circulate as money as we cannot control that.  We control bonds and through them banking issues". The 1863 National Banking Act reinstated a private US central bank and Chase's war bonds were issued.  Lincoln was re-elected the next year, vowing to repeal the act after he took his January 1865 oaths of office.  Before he could act, he was assassinated at the Ford Theatre by John Wilkes Booth.  Booth had major connections to the international bankers.  His granddaughter wrote This One Mad Act, which details Booth's contact with "mysterious Europeans" just before the Lincoln assassination. Following the Lincoln hit, Booth was whisked away by members of a secret society known as Knights of the Golden Circle (KGC).  KGC had close ties to the French Society of Seasons, which produced Karl Marx.  KGC had fomented much of the tension that caused the Civil War and President Lincoln had specifically targeted the group.  Booth was a KGC member and was connected through Confederate Secretary of State Judah Benjamin to the House of Rothschild.  Benjamin fled to England after the Civil War. Nearly a century after Lincoln was assassinated for issuing Greenbacks, President John F. Kennedy found himself in the Eight Families' crosshairs.  Kennedy had announced a crackdown on off-shore tax havens and proposed increases in tax rates on large oil and mining companies.  He supported eliminating tax loopholes which benefit the super-rich.  His economic policies were publicly attacked by Fortune magazine, the Wall Street Journal and both David and Nelson Rockefeller.  Even Kennedy's own Treasury Secretary Douglas Dillon, who came from the UBS Warburg-controlled Dillon Read investment bank, voiced opposition to the JFK proposals. Kennedy's fate was sealed in June 1963 when he authorized the issuance of more than $4 billion in United States Notes by his Treasury Department in an attempt to circumvent the high interest rate usury of the private Federal Reserve international banker crowd.  The wife of Lee Harvey Oswald, who was conveniently gunned down by Jack Ruby before Ruby himself was shot, told author A. J. Weberman in 1994, "The answer to the Kennedy assassination is with the Federal Reserve Bank.  Don't underestimate that.  It's wrong to blame it on Angleton and the CIA per se only.  This is only one finger on the same hand.  The people who supply the money are above the CIA". Fueled by incoming President Lyndon Johnson's immediate escalation of the Vietnam War, the US sank further into debt. Its citizens were terrorized into silence. If they could kill the President they could kill anyone. The House of Rothschild The Dutch House of Orange founded the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609 as the world's first central bank.  Prince William of Orange married into the English House of Windsor, taking King James II's daughter Mary as his bride.  The Orange Order Brotherhood, which recently fomented Northern Ireland Protestant violence, put William III on the English throne where he ruled both Holland and Britain.  In 1694 William III teamed up with the UK aristocracy to launch the private Bank of England. The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street- as the Bank of England is known- is surrounded by thirty foot walls. Three floors beneath it the third largest stock of gold bullion in the world is stored. The Rothschilds and their inbred Eight Families partners gradually came to control the Bank of England. The daily London gold "fixing" occurred at the N. M. Rothschild Bank until 2004.  As Bank of England Deputy Governor George Blunden put it, "Fear is what makes the bank's powers so acceptable.  The bank is able to exert its influence when people are dependent on us and fear losing their privileges or when they are frightened." Mayer Amschel Rothschild sold the British government German Hessian mercenaries to fight against American Revolutionaries, diverting the proceeds to his brother Nathan in London, where N.M. (Nathan and Mayer) Rothschild & Sons was established.  Mayer was a serious student of Cabala and launched his fortune on money embezzled from William IX- royal administrator of the Hesse-Kassel region and a prominent Freemason. Rothschild-controlled Barings bankrolled the Chinese opium and African slave trades. It financed the Louisiana Purchase.  When several states defaulted on its loans, Barings bribed Daniel Webster to make speeches stressing the virtues of loan repayment.  The states held their ground, so the House of Rothschild cut off the money spigot in 1842, plunging the US into a deep depression.  It was often said that the wealth of the Rothschilds depended on the bankruptcy of nations.  Mayer Amschel Rothschild once said, "I care not who controls a nation's political affairs, so long as I control her currency". War didn't hurt the family fortune either.  The House of Rothschild financed the Prussian War, the Crimean War and the British attempt to seize the Suez Canal from the French.  Nathan Rothschild made a huge financial bet on Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, while also funding the Duke of Wellington's peninsular campaign against Napoleon. Both the Mexican War and the Civil War were goldmines for the family. One Rothschild family biography mentions a London meeting where an "International Banking Syndicate" decided to pit the American North against the South as part of a "divide and conquer" strategy.  German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck once stated, "The division of the United States into federations of equal force was decided long before the Civil War.  These bankers were afraid that the United States…would upset their financial domination over the world.  The voice of the Rothschilds prevailed." Rothschild biographer Derek Wilson says the family was the official European banker to the US government and strong supporters of the Bank of the United States. Family biographer Niall Ferguson notes a "substantial and unexplained gap" in private Rothschild correspondence between 1854-1860. He says all copies of outgoing letters written by the London Rothschilds during this Civil War period "were destroyed at the orders of successive partners". French and British troops had, at the height of the Civil War, encircled the US.  The British sent 11,000 troops to Crown-controlled Canada, which gave safe harbor to Confederate agents.  France's Napoleon III installed Austrian Hapsburg family member Archduke Maximilian as his puppet emperor in Mexico, where French troops massed on the Texas border.  Only an 11th-hour deployment of two Russian warship fleets by US ally Czar Alexander II in 1863 saved the United States from re-colonization. That same year the Chicago Tribune blasted, "Belmont (August Belmont was a US Rothschild agent and had a Triple Crown horse race named in his honor) and the Rothschilds…who have been buying up Confederate war bonds." Salmon Rothschild said of a deceased President Lincoln, "He rejects all forms of compromise.  He has the appearance of a peasant and can only tell barroom stories."  Baron Jacob Rothschild was equally flattering towards the US citizenry. He once commented to US Minister to Belgium Henry Sanford on the over half a million Americans who died during the Civil War, "When your patient is desperately sick, you try desperate measures, even to bloodletting."  Salmon and Jacob were merely carrying forth a family tradition.  A few generations earlier Mayer Amschel Rothschild bragged of his investment strategy, "When the streets of Paris are running in blood, I buy". Mayer Rothschild's sons were known as the Frankfurt Five.  The eldest – Amschel – ran the family's Frankfurt bank with his father, while Nathan ran London operations.  Youngest son Jacob set up shop in Paris, while Salomon ran the Vienna branch and Karl was off to Naples.  Author Frederick Morton estimates that by 1850 the Rothschilds were worth over $10 billion. [21] Some researchers believe that their fortune today exceeds $100 trillion. The Warburgs, Kuhn Loebs, Goldman Sachs, Schiffs and Rothschilds have intermarried into one big happy banking family.  The Warburg family- which controls Deutsche Bank and BNP- tied up with the Rothschilds in 1814 in Hamburg, while Kuhn Loeb powerhouse Jacob Schiff shared quarters with Rothschilds in 1785.  Schiff immigrated to America in 1865. He joined forces with Abraham Kuhn and married Solomon Loeb's daughter.  Loeb and Kuhn married each others sisters and the Kuhn Loeb dynasty was consummated.  Felix Warburg married Jacob Schiff's daughter. Two Goldman daughters married two sons of the Sachs family, creating Goldman Sachs.  In 1806 Nathan Rothschild married the oldest daughter of Levi Barent Cohen, a leading financier in London. Thus, Merrill Lynch super-bull Abby Joseph Cohen and Clinton Secretary of Defense William Cohen are likely descended from Rothschilds. Today the Rothschild's control a far-flung financial empire, which includes majority stakes in most world central banks.  The Edmond de Rothschild clan owns the Banque Privee SA in Lugano, Switzerland and the Rothschild Bank AG of Zurich.  The family of Jacob Lord Rothschild owns the powerful Rothschild Italia in Milan. They are founding members of the exclusive $10 trillion Club of the Isles – which controls corporate giants Royal Dutch Shell, Imperial Chemical Industries, Lloyds of London, Unilever, Barclays, Lonrho, Rio Tinto Zinc, BHP Billiton and Anglo American DeBeers. It dominates the world supply of petroleum, gold, diamonds, and many other vital raw materials. The Club of the Isles provides capital for George Soros' Quantum Fund NV – which made a killing in 1998-99 destroying the currencies of Thailand, Indonesia and Russia.  Soros was a major shareholder at George W. Bush's Harken Energy. Quantum NV operates from the Dutch island of Curacao, in the shadow of recently shuttered Royal Dutch/Shell and Exxon Mobil refineries.  Curacao was recently cited by an OECD Task Force on Money Laundering as a major drug money laundering nation.  The Club of Isles is led by the Rothschilds and includes Queen Elizabeth II and other wealthy European aristocrats and Black Nobility.  Fugitive Swiss financier and Mossad cutout Marc Rich, whose business interests were recently taken over by the Russian mafia Alfa Group, is also part of the Soros network. Ties to drug money are nothing new to the Rothschilds.  N. M. Rothschild & Sons was at the epicenter of the Bank of Credit & Commerce International (BCCI) scandal, but escaped the limelight when a warehouse full of documents conveniently burned to the ground around the time Rothschild-controlled Bank of England shut BCCI down. Recent Rothschild endeavors include the backing of Russian oligarch Mikhail Khodorkovsky, control over Blackstone Group (see "…The 911 Short Selling Financial Scam": globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=24687), and the takeover of giant Swiss oil trader Glencore. Perhaps the largest repository for Rothschild wealth today is Rothschilds Continuation Holdings AG – a secretive Swiss-based bank holding company.  By the late 1990s scions of the Rothschild global empire were Barons Guy and Elie de Rothschild in France and Lord Jacob and Sir Evelyn Rothschild in Britain. Evelyn was chairman of the Economist and a director at DeBeers and IBM UK. Jacob backed Arnold Schwarzenegger's California gubernatorial campaign. He took control of Khodorkovsky's YUKOS oil shares just before the Russian government arrested him. In 2010 Jacob joined Rupert Murdoch in a shale oil extraction partnership in Israel through Genie Energy – a subsidiary of IDT Corporation. Within months, Sarah Palin had hired former IDT executive Michael Glassner as her chief of staff. [27] Is Palin the Rothschild choice in 2012? The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part III: The Roundtable & The Illuminati According to former British intelligence agent John Coleman's book, The Committee of 300, the Rothschilds exert political control through the secretive Business Roundtable, which they created in 1909 with the help of Lord Alfred Milner and South African industrialist Cecil Rhodes. The Rhodes Scholarship is granted by Oxford University, while oil industry propagandist Cambridge Energy Research Associates operates out of the Rhodes-supported Cambridge University. Rhodes founded De Beers and Standard Chartered Bank.  According to Gary Allen's expose, The Rockefeller Files, Milner financed the Russian Bolsheviks on Rothschild's behalf, with help from Jacob Schiff and Max Warburg. In 1917 British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour penned a letter to Zionist Second Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild in which he expressed support for a Jewish homeland on Palestinian-controlled lands in the Middle East. [1] The Balfour Declaration justified the brutal seizure of Palestinian lands for the post-WWII establishment of Israel.  Israel would serve, not as some high-minded "Jewish homeland", but as lynchpin in Rothschild/Eight Families control over the world's oil supply.  Baron Edmond de Rothschild built the first oil pipeline from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean to bring BP Iranian oil to Israel.  He founded Israeli General Bank and Paz Oil. He is considered by many the father of modern Israel. [2] Roundtable inner Circle of Initiates included Lord Milner, Cecil Rhodes, Arthur Balfour, Albert Grey and Lord Nathan Rothschild.  The Roundtable takes its name from the legendary knight of King Arthur, whose tale of the Holy Grail is paramount to the Illuminati notion of Sangreal or holy blood. John Coleman writes in The Committee of 300, "Round Tablers armed with immense wealth from gold, diamond and drug monopolies fanned out throughout the world to take control of fiscal and monetary policies and political leadership in all countries where they operated." While Cecil Rhodes and the Oppenheimers went to South Africa, the Kuhn Loebs were off to re-colonize America.  Rudyard Kipling was sent to India. The Schiffs and Warburgs manhandled Russia. The Rothschilds, Lazards and Israel Moses Seifs pushed into the Middle East.  In Princeton, New Jersey the Round Table founded the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) as partner to its All Souls College at Oxford.  IAS was funded by the Rockefeller's General Education Board. IAS members Robert Oppenheimer, Neils Bohr and Albert Einstein created the atomic bomb. In 1919 Rothschild's Business Roundtable spawned the Royal Institute of International Affairs (RIIA) in London.  The RIIA soon sponsored sister organizations around the globe, including the US Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), the Asian Institute of Pacific Relations, the Canadian Institute of International Affairs, the Brussels-based Institute des Relations Internationales, the Danish Foreign Policy Society, the Indian Council of World Affairs and the Australian Institute of International Affairs. Other affiliates popped up in France, Turkey, Italy, Yugoslavia and Greece. The RIIA is a registered charity of the Queen and, according to its annual reports, is funded largely by the Four Horsemen.  Former British Foreign Secretary and Kissinger Associates co-founder Lord Carrington was President of both the RIIA and the Bilderbergers.  The inner circle at RIIA is dominated by Knights of St. John Jerusalem, Knights of Malta, Knights Templar and 33rd Degree Scottish Rite Freemasons.  The Knights of St. John were founded in 1070 and answer directly to the British House of Windsor.  Their leading bloodline is the Villiers dynasty, which the Hong Kong Matheson family married into. The Lytton family also married into the Villiers gang. Colonel Edward Bulwer-Lytton led the English Rosicrucian secret society, which Shakespeare opaquely referred to as Rosencranz, while the Freemasons took the role of Guildenstern.  Lytton was spiritual father of both the RIIA and Nazi fascism.  In 1871 he penned a novel titled, Vril: The Power of the Coming Race.  Seventy years later the Vril Society received ample mention in Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf.  Lytton's son became Viceroy to India in 1876 just before opium production spiked in that country.  Lytton's good friend Rudyard Kipling worked under Lord Beaverbrook as Propaganda Minister, alongside Sir Charles Hambro of the Hambros banking dynasty. James Bruce, ancestor to Scottish Rite Freemason founder Sir Robert the Bruce, was the 8th Earl of Elgin. He supervised the Caribbean slave trade as Jamaican Governor General from 1842-1846.  He was Britain's Ambassador to China during the Second Opium War.  His brother Frederick was Colonial Secretary of Hong Kong during both Opium Wars.  Both were prominent Freemasons.  British Lord Palmerston, who ran the Opium Wars, was a blood relative of the Bruce monarchy, as was his Foreign Secretary John Russell, grandfather of Bertrand Russell. Children of the Roundtable elite are members of a Dionysian cult known as Children of the Sun.  Initiates include Aldous Huxley, T. S. Eliot, D. H. Lawrence and H. G. Wells.  Wells headed British intelligence during WWI. His books speak of a "one-world brain" and "a police of the mind".  William Butler Yeats, another Sun member, was a pal of Aleister Crowley.  The two formed an Isis Cult based on a Madam Blavatsky manuscript, which called on the British aristocracy to organize itself into an Isis Aryan priesthood. Most prominent writers of English literature came from the ranks of the Roundtable. All promoted Empire expansion, however subtly.  Blavatsky's Theosophical Society and Bulwer-Lytton's Rosicrucians joined forces to form the Thule Society out of which the Nazis emerged. Aleister Crowley formed the British parallel to the Thule Society, the Isis-Urania Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.  He tutored LSD guru Aldus Huxley, who arrived in the US in 1952, the same year the CIA launched its MK-ULTRA mind control program with help from the Warburg-owned Swiss Sandoz Laboratories and Rockefeller cousin Allen Dulles- OSS Station Chief in Berne.  Dulles received information from the Muslim Brotherhood House of Saudi regarding the creation of mind-controlled Assassins.  Dulles' assistant was James Warburg. The Atlantic Union (AU) was an RIIA affiliate founded by Cecil Rhodes- who dreamed of returning the US to the British Crown.  In 1939 AU set up its first offices in America in space donated by Nelson Rockefeller at 10 E 40th St in New York City.  Every year from 1949-1976 an AU resolution was floored in Congress calling for a repeal of the Declaration of Independence and a "new world order". Another RIIA affiliate was United World Federalists (UWF)- founded by Norman Cousins and Dulles assistant James P. Warburg.  UWF's motto was "One world or none".  Its first president Cord Meyer stepped down to take a key position in Allen Dulles' CIA.  Meyer articulated UWF's goal, "Once having joined the One-World Federated Government, no nation could secede or revolt…with the atom bomb in its possession the Federal Government would blow that nation off the face of the earth." In 1950 James Warburg, whose elders Max and Paul sat on the board of Nazi business combine IG Farben, testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, "We shall have world government whether or not you like it- by conquest or consent."  The AU and UAF are close to the CFR and the Trilateral Commission (TC)- founded by David Rockefeller and Zbigniew Brzezinski in 1974. The TC published The Triangle Papers which extended the "special relationship between the US and Western Europe" to include Japan, which was fast becoming creditor to the rest of the world.  Former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker was TC Chairman.  TC/CFR insider Harvard Professor  Samuel Huntington, who most recently has argued for a "Clash of Civilizations" between the West and the Muslim world, wrote in the TC publication Crisis in Democracy, "…a government which lacks authority will have little ability short of cataclysmic crisis to impose on its people the sacrifices which may be necessary." The Illuminati The Illuminati serves as ruling council to all secret societies.  Its roots go back to the Guardians of Light in Atlantis, the Brotherhood of the Snake in Sumeria, the Afghan Roshaniya, the Egyptian Mystery Schools and the Genoese families who bankrolled the Roman Empire.  British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who "handled" mafia-founder and 33rd Degree Mason Guiseppe Mazzini, alluded to the Illuminati in a speech before the House of Commons in 1856 warning, "There is in Italy a power which we seldom mention. I mean the secret societies.  Europe…is covered with a network of secret societies just as the surfaces of the earth are covered with a network of railroads." The Illuminati is to these secret societies what the Bank of International Settlements is to the Eight Families central bankers.  And their constituencies are exactly the same. The forerunners of the Freemasons -the Knights Templar- founded the concept of banking and created a bond market as a means to control European nobles through war debts.  By the 13th century the Templars had used their looted Crusades gold to buy 9,000 castles throughout Europe and ran an empire stretching from Copenhagen to Damascus.  They founded modern banking techniques and legitimized usury via interest payments.  Templars' bank branches popped up everywhere, backed by their ill-gotten gold.  They charged up to 60% interest on loans, launched the concept of trust accounts and introduced a credit card system for Holy Land pilgrims.  They acted as tax collectors, though themselves exempted by Roman authorities, and built the great cathedrals of Europe, having also found instructions regarding secret building techniques alongside the gold they pilfered beneath Solomon's Temple.  The stained glass used in the cathedrals resulted from a secret Gothic technique known by few.  One who had perfected this art was Omar Khayvam, a good friend of Assassin founder Hasan bin Sabah. The Templars controlled a huge fleet of ships and their own naval fleet based at the French Atlantic Port of La Rochelle.  They were especially cozy with the royals of England.  They purchased the island of Cyprus from Richard the Lion Heart, but were later overrun by the Turks.  On Friday October 13, 1307 King Philip IV of France joined forces with Pope Clement V and began rounding up Templars on charges ranging from necromancy to the use of black magic.  Friday the 13th would from that day forward carry negative connotations. "Sion" is believed to be a transliteration of Zion, itself a transliteration for the ancient Hebrew name Jerusalem.  The Priory of Sion came into public view in July 1956.  A 1981 notice in the French press listed 121 dignitaries as Priory members.  All were bankers, royalty or members of the international political jet set.  Pierre Plantard was listed as Grand Master.  Plantard is a direct descendent, through King Dagobert II, of the Merovingan Kings.  Plantard, who owns property in the Rennes-le-Chateau area of southern France where the Priory of Sion is based, has stated that the order has in its possession lost treasure recovered from beneath Solomon's Temple and that it will be returned to Israel when the time is right.  He also stated that in the near future monarchy would be restored to France and other nations. The Templars claim to possess secret knowledge that Jesus Christ married Mary Magdalene, fathered children to launch the Merovingan bloodline and was the son of Joseph of Arimathea. Joseph was the son of King Solomon.  Solomon's Temple is the model for Masonic Temples, which occur without fail in every town of any size in America.  It was a place of ill repute where fornicating, drunkenness and human sacrifice were the norm.  Accorder to British researcher David Icke, it's location on Jerusalem's Mount Moriah may have also been an Anunnaki flight control center. The Annunaki are the reptilian/aliens revealed by the Sumerian clay tablets- the oldest written accounts of humankind known. The Crusader Knights Templar looted their huge store of gold and numerous sacred artifacts from beneath the Temple.  King Solomon was the son of King David- who during his 1015 BC reign massacred thousands of people. Icke calls King David "a butcher" and asserts that the king wrote a good chunk of the Bible.  His son Solomon killed his own brother to become King.  He advised Egyptian Pharaoh Shiskak I, marrying his daughter.  Solomon studied at Akhenaton's Egyptian Mystery Schools, where mind control was rampant.  The Grand Lodge of Cairo spawned a network of secret societies including Assassins, Cabalists, Freemasons and the Afghan Roshaniya. Those who pass through to the highest levels become Illuminati. Icke claims the Canaanite Brotherhood was headed by the god/king Melchizedek, who may have been an Annunaki.  The King focused on a Hebrew understanding of the Ancient Mysteries. The Order of Melchizedek became the secret society associated with the Cabala.  King Solomon developed his vast wisdom studying the Sumerian Tables of Destiny which Abraham had possessed.  Abraham may have also been of Anunnaki origin. Both he and Melchizedek had been tutored by the Sumerian Brotherhood of the Snake, whose name may have something to do with the Biblical creation story, where Adam and Eve are tempted from a bountiful garden of Eden (a hunting and gathering existence?) into a world of "sin and servitude" by a snake.  When the Bible says that the first couple ate the forbidden fruit, could it mean that Eve was impregnated by the snake – an Annunaki serpent (the Nephilim of the Book of Genesis) – thus damning all Adamus to a life of toil under serpent king bloodline control? The basis of the Sumerian Tables of Destiny which Abraham possessed became known as Ha Qabala, Hebrew for "light and knowledge".  Those who understood these cryptic secrets, said to be encoded throughout the Old Testament, are referred to deferentially as Ram.  The phrase is used in Celtic, Buddhist and Hindu spiritual circles as well.  The Knights Templar brought Cabbalistic knowledge to Europe when they returned from their Middle East Crusade adventures. [16] The Knights created the Prieure de Sion on Mt. Zion near Jerusalem in the 11th century to guard such holy relics as the Shroud of Turin, the Ark of the Covenant and the Hapsburg family's Spear of Destiny- which was used to kill Jesus Christ.  The Priory's more important purpose was to guard Templar gold and to preserve the alleged bloodline of Jesus – the royal Sangreal – which they believe is carried forth by the French Bourbon Merovingan family and the related Hapsburg monarchs of Spain and Austria. [17]  The French Lorraine dynasty, which descended from the Merovingans, married into the House of Hapsburg to acquire the throne of Austria. The Hapsburgs ran the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, through King Charles V and others.  The family traces its roots back to a Swiss estate known as Habichtburg, which was built in 1020.  The Hapsburgs are an integral part of the Priory of Sion. Many researchers believe that Spain's Hapsburg King Philip will be crowned Sangreal World King in Jerusalem.  The Hapsburgs are related to the Rothschilds through Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa's second son Archibald II. The Rothschilds- leaders in Cabala, Freemasonry and the Knights Templar- sit at the apex of the both the Illuminati and the Eight Families banking cartel.  The family accumulated its vast wealth issuing war bonds to Black Nobility for centuries, including the British Windsors, the French Bourbons, the German von Thurn und Taxis, the Italian Savoys and the Austrian and Spanish Hapsburgs. The Eight Families have also intermarried with these royals. Author David Icke believes the Rothschilds represent the head of the Anunnaki Serpent Kings, stating, "They (Rothschilds) had the crown heads of Europe in debt to them and this included the Black Nobility dynasty, the Hapsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire for 600 years.  The Rothschilds also control the Bank of England.  If there was a war, the Rothschilds were behind the scenes, creating conflict and funding both sides." The Rothschilds and the Warburgs are main stockholders of the German Bundesbank.  Rothschilds control Japan's biggest banking house Nomura Securities via a tie-up between Edmund Rothschild and Tsunao Okumura.  The Rothschilds are the richest and most powerful family in the world.  They are also inbred.  According to several family biographers, over half of the last generation of Rothschild progeny married within the family, presumably to preserve their Sangreal. The 1782 Great Seal of the United States is loaded with Illuminati symbolism.  So is the reverse side of the US $1 Federal Reserve Note, which was designed by Freemasons.  The pyramid on the left side represents those in Egypt- possibly space beacon/energy source to the Anunnaki- whose Pharaohs oversaw the building of the pyramids using slave labor. The pyramid is an important symbol for the Illuminati bankers. They employ Triads, Trilaterals and Trinities to create a society ruled by an elite Sangreal few presiding over the masses- as represented by a pyramid.  The Brotherhood of the Snake worshiped a Trinity of Isis, Osirus and Horus- who may have been Anunnaki offspring.  The Brotherhood spread the concept of Trinity to Christian (Father, Son and Holy Spirit), Hindu (Brahma, Shiva and Krishna) and Buddhist (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) faiths. [20] The reptilian eye atop the pyramid depicted on the $1 bill is the all-seeing eye of the Afghan Roshaniya, known alternately as The Order and Order of the Quest- names adopted by Skull & Bones, Germanorden and the JASON Society. [21]  Take a magnifying glass and look at the eye's pupil. There is an image of an alien inside the pupil. I'm not kidding. Novus Ordo Seclorum appears beneath the pyramid, while Annuit Coeptis appears above the all-seeing eye.  Annuit Coeptis means "may he smile upon our endeavors (Great Work of Ages)".  Above the eagle on the right side of the note are the words E Pluribus Unum, Latin for "out of many one".  The eagle clutches 13 arrows and 13 olive branches, while 13 stars appear above the eagle's head.  America was founded with 13 colonies.  Templar pirate Jaques deMolay was executed on Friday the 13th. The numbers 3, 9, 13 and 33 are significant to the secret societies.  33rd-degree Freemasons are said to become Illuminati. According to the late researcher William Cooper, the Bilderberger Group has a powerful Policy Committee of 13 members.  It is one of 3 committees of 13 which answered (until his recent death) to Prince Bernhard- member of the Hapsburg family and leader of the Black Nobility.  The Bilderberg Policy Committee answers to a Rothschild Round Table of 9.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-20" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:f7cad3de-eb20-4b19-a0bb-162af95ec3f9-20" data-testid= "conversation-turn-42" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part IV: A Financial Parasite United World Federalists founder James Warburg's father was Paul Warburg, who financed Hitler with help from Brown Brothers Harriman partner Prescott Bush. Colonel Ely Garrison was a close friend of both President Teddy Roosevelt and President Woodrow Wilson.  Garrison wrote in Roosevelt, Wilson and the Federal Reserve, "Paul Warburg was the man who got the Federal Reserve Act together after the Aldrich Plan aroused such nationwide resentment and opposition.  The mastermind of both plans was Baron Alfred Rothschild of London." The Aldrich Plan was hatched at a secret 1910 meeting at JP Morgan's private resort on Jekyl Island, SC between Rockefeller lieutenant Nelson Aldrich and Paul Warburg of the German Warburg banking dynasty.  Aldrich, a New York congressman, later married into the Rockefeller family.  His son Winthrop Aldrich chaired Chase Manhattan Bank.  While the bankers met, Colonel Edward House, another Rockefeller stooge and close confidant of President Woodrow Wilson, was busy convincing Wilson of the importance of a private central bank and the introduction of a national income tax. A member of House's staff was British MI6 Permindex insider General Julius Klein. Wilson didn't need much convincing, since he was beholden to copper magnate Cleveland Dodge, whose namesake Phelps Dodge became one of the biggest mining companies in the world.  Dodge bankrolled Wilson's political career. Wilson even wrote his inaugural speech on Dodge's yacht. Wilson was a classmate of both Dodge and Cyrus McCormick at Princeton.  Both were directors at Rockefeller's National City Bank (now Citigroup).  Wilson's main focus was on overcoming public distrust of the bankers, which New York City Mayor John Hylan echoed in 1922 when he argued, "The real menace to our republic is the invisible government which, like a giant octopus, sprawls its slimy length over our city, state and nation.  At the head is a small group of banking houses, generally referred to as the international bankers". But the Eight Families prevailed.  In 1913 the Federal Reserve Bank was born, with Paul Warburg its first Governor.  Four years later the US entered World War I, after a secret society known as the Black Hand assassinated Archduke Ferdinand and his Hapsburg wife.  The Archduke's friend Count Czerin later said, "A year before the war he informed me that the Masons had resolved upon his death." That same year, Bolsheviks overthrew the Hohehzollern monarchy in Russia with help from Max Warburg and Jacob Schiff, while the Balfour Declaration leading to the creation of Israel was penned to Zionist Second Lord Rothschild. In the 1920's Baron Edmund de Rothschild founded the Palestine Economics Commission, while Kuhn Loeb's Manhattan offices helped Rothschild form a network to smuggle weapons to Zionist death squads bent on seizing Palestinian lands.  General Julius Klein oversaw the operation and headed the US Army Counterintelligence Corps, which later produced Henry Kissinger.  Klein diverted Marshall Plan aid to Europe to Zionist terror cells in Palestine after WWII, channeling the funds through the Sonneborn Institute, which was controlled by Baltimore chemical magnate Rudolph Sonneborn.  His wife Dorothy Schiff is related to the Warburgs. The Kuhn Loebs came to Manhattan with the Warburgs. At the same time the Bronfmans came to Canada as part of the Moses Montefiore Jewish Colonization Committee.  The Montefiores have carried out the dirty work of Genoese nobility since the 13th Century.  The di Spadaforas served that function for the Italian House of Savoy, which was bankrolled by the Israel Moses Seif family for which Israel is named.  Lord Harold Sebag Montefiore is current head of the Jerusalem Foundation, the Zionist wing of the Knights of St. John's Jerusalem.  The Bronfmans (the name means "liquorman" in Yiddish) tied up with Arnold Rothstein, a product of the Rothschild's dry goods empire, to found organized crime in New York City.  Rothstein was succeeded by Lucky Luciano, Meyer Lansky, Robert Vesco and Santos Trafficante.  The Bronfmans are intermarried with the Rothschilds, Loebs and Lamberts. The year 1917 also saw the 16th Amendment added to the US Constitution, levying a national income tax, though it was ratified by only two of the required 36 states.  The IRS is a private corporation registered in Delaware. [8]  Four years earlier the Rockefeller Foundation was launched, to shield family wealth from the new income tax provisions, while steering public opinion through social engineering.  One of its tentacles was the General Education Board. In Occasional Letter #1 the Board states, "In our dreams we have limitless resources and the people yield themselves with perfect docility to our molding hands. The present education conventions fade from their minds and, unhampered by tradition, we will work our own good will upon a grateful and responsive rural folk.  We shall try not to make these people or any of their children into philosophers or men of learning or men of science…of whom we have ample supply." Though most Americans think of the Federal Reserve as a government institution, it is privately held by the Eight Families.  The Secret Service is employed, not by the Executive Branch, but by the Federal Reserve. [10] An exchange between Sen. Edward Kennedy (D-MA) and Fed Chairman Paul Volcker at Senate hearings in 1982 is instructive.  Kennedy must have thought of his older brother John when he told Volcker that if he were before the committee as a member of US Treasury things would be much different.  Volcker, puffing on a cigar, responded cavalierly, "That's probably true. But I believe it was intentionally designed this way". [11]  Rep. Lee Hamilton (D-IN) put it to Volcker that, "People realize that what that board of yours does has a very profound impact on their pocketbooks, and yet it is a group of people basically inaccessible to them and unaccountable to them." President Wilson spoke of, "a power so organized, so complete, so pervasive, that they had better not speak above their breaths when they speak in condemnation of it." Rep. Charles Lindberg (D-NY) was more blunt, railing against Wilson's Federal Reserve Act, which had cleverly been dubbed the "People's Bill".  Lindberg declared that the Act would, "…establish the most gigantic trust on earth…When the president signs this act, the invisible government by the money power will be legitimized.  The law will create inflation whenever the trusts want inflation.  From now on, depressions will be scientifically created.  The invisible government by the money power, proven to exist by the Money Trust Investigation, will be legalized.  The whole central bank concept was engineered by the very group it was supposed to strip of power". The Fed is made up of most every bank in the US, but the New York Federal Reserve Bank controls the Fed by virtue of its enormous capital resources.  The true center of power within the Fed is the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), on which only the NY Fed President holds a permanent voting seat.  The FOMC issues directives on monetary policy which are implemented from the 8th Floor of the NY Fed, a fortress modeled after the Bank of England. In the fifth sub-basement of the 14-story stone hulk lie 10,300 tons of mostly non-US gold, 1/3 of the world's gold reserves and by far the largest gold stock in the world. The world of money is increasingly computerized.  With the introduction by the Eight Families of complicated financial instruments like derivatives, options, puts and futures; the volume of inter-bank transactions took a quantum leap.  To handle this the fed built a superhighway eerily known as CHIPS (Clearing Interbank Payment System), which is based in New York and modeled after Morgan's Belgium-based Euro-Clear – also known as The Beast. When the Fed was created five New York banks- Citibank, Chase, Chemical Bank, Manufacturers Hanover and Bankers Trust- held a 43% stake in the New York Fed.  By 1983 these same five banks owned 53% of the NY Fed.  By year 2000, the newly merged Citigroup, JP Morgan Chase and Deutsche Bank combines owned even bigger chunks, as did the European faction of the Eight Families. Collectively they own majority stock in every Fortune 500 corporation and do the bulk of stock and bond trading.  In 1955 the above five banks accounted for 15% of all stock trades.  By 1985 they were involved in 85% of all stock transactions. Still more powerful are the investment banks which bear the names of many of the Eight Families. In 1982, while Morgan bankers presided over negotiations between Britain and Argentina after the Falklands War, President Reagan pushed through SEC Rule 415, which helped consolidate securities underwriting in the hands of six large investment houses owned by the Eight Families: Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley, Salomon Brothers, First Boston and Lehman Brothers.  These banks further consolidated their power via the merger mania of 1980s and 1990s. American Express swallowed up both Lehman Brothers-Kuhn Loeb – which had merged in 1977 – and Shearson Lehman-Rhoades.  The Israel Moses Seif's Banca de la Svizzera Italiana bought a 7% stake in Lehman Brothers. [16]  Salomon Brothers nabbed Philbro from the South African Oppenheimer family, then bought Smith Barney. All three then became part of Traveler's Group, headed by Sandy Weill of the David-Weill family, which controls Lazard Freres through senior partner Michel David-Weill.  Citibank then bought Travelers to form Citigroup. S.G. Warburg, of which Oppenheimer's Chartered Consolidated owns a 9% stake, joined the old money Banque Paribas- which merged into Merrill Lynch in 1984.  Union Bank of Switzerland acquired Paine Webber, while Morgan Stanley ate up Dean Witter and purchased Discover credit card operations from Sears. Kuhn Loeb-controlled First Boston merged with Credit Suisse, which had already absorbed White-Weld, to become CS First Boston- the major player in the dirty London Eurobond market.  Merrill Lynch – merged into Bank of America in 2008 – is the major player on the US side of this trade.  Swiss Banking Corporation merged with London's biggest investment house S.G. Warburg to create SBC Warburg, while Warburg became more intertwined with Merrill Lynch through their 1998 Mercury Assets tie up.  The Warburg's formed another venture with Union Bank of Switzerland, creating powerhouse UBS Warburg.  Deutsche Bank bought Banker's Trust and Alex Brown to briefly become the world's largest bank with $882 billion in assets.  With repeal of Glass-Steagal, the line between investment, commercial and private banking disappeared. This handful of investment banks exerts an enormous amount of control over the global economy.  Their activities include advising Third World debt negotiations, handling mergers and breakups, creating companies to fill a perceived economic void through the launching of initial public stock offerings (IPOs), underwriting all stocks, underwriting all corporate and government bond issuance, and pulling the bandwagon down the road of privatization and globalization of the world economy. A recent president of the World Bank was James Wolfensohn of Salomon Smith Barney.  Merrill Lynch had $435 billion in assets in 1994, before the merger frenzy had really even gotten under way.  The biggest commercial bank at the time, Citibank, could claim only $249 billion in assets. In 1991 Merrill Lynch handled 26.8% of all global bank mergers.  Morgan Stanley did 16.8%, Goldman Sachs 16.3%, Lehman Brothers 16.1% and Credit Suisse First Boston 14.5%.  Morgan Stanley did $60 billion in corporate mergers in 1989.  By 2007, reflecting the repeal of Glass-Steagel, the top ten NMA advisers in order were: Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Citigroup, JP Morgan Chase, Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, UBS Warburg, Credit Suisse, Deutsche Bank and Lazard. In the IPO stock underwriting field for 1991 the top four were Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley and CS First Boston.  In the arena of global privatization for years 1985-1995, Goldman Sachs led the way doing $13.3 billion worth of deals.  UBS Warburg did $8.2 billion, BNP Paribas $6.8 billion, CS First Boston $4.9 billion and Paribas-owner Merrill Lynch $4.4 billion. In 2006 BNP Paribas bought the notorious Banca Nacionale de Lavoro (BNL), which led the charge in arming Saddam Hussein. According to Global Finance, it is now the world's largest bank with nearly $3 trillion in assets. The leading US debt underwriters for the first nine months of 1995 bore the same familiar names.  Merrill Lynch underwrote $74.2 billion in the US debt markets, or 15.3% of the total.  Lehman Brothers handled $52.5 billion, Morgan Stanley $47.4 billion, Salomon Smith Barney $45.6 billion.  CS First Boston, Chase Manhattan and Goldman Sachs rounded out the top seven.  The top three municipal debt underwriters that year were Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch and UBS Paine Webber.  In the euro-market the top four underwriters in 1995 were UBS Warburg, Merrill Lynch, Deutsche Bank and Goldman Sachs. [18]  Deutsche Bank's Morgan Grenfell branch engineered the corporate takeover binge in Europe. The dominant players in the oil futures markets at both the New York Mercantile Exchange and the London Petroleum Exchange are Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, Goldman Sachs (through its J. Aron & Company subsidiary), Citigroup (through its Philbro unit) and Deutsche Bank (through its Banker's Trust acquisition).  In 2002 Enron Online was auctioned off by a bankruptcy court to UBS Warburg for $0.  UBS was to share monopoly Enron Online profits with Lehman Brothers after the first two years of the deal. [19] With Lehman's 2008 demise, its new owner Barclays will get their cut. Following the Lehman Brothers fiasco and the ensuing financial meltdown of 2008, the Four Horsemen of Banking got even bigger. For pennies on the dollar, JP Morgan Chase was handed Bear Stearns and Washington Mutual. Bank of America commandeered Merrill Lynch and Countrywide. And Wells Fargo seized control over the reeling #5 US bank Wachovia. Barclays got a sweetheart deal for the remains of Lehman Brothers. Former House Banking Committee Chairman Wright Patman (D-TX), declared of Federal Reserve Eight Families owners, "The United States today has in effect two governments.  We are the duly constituted government.  Then we have an independent, uncontrolled and uncoordinated government in the Federal Reserve System, operating the money powers which are reserved to Congress by the Constitution". Since the creation of the Federal Reserve, US debt (mostly owed to the Eight Families) has skyrocketed from $1 billion to nearly $14 trillion today.  This far surpasses the total of all Third World country debt combined, debt which is mostly owed to these same Eight Families, who own most all the world's central banks. As Sen. Barry Goldwater (R-AZ) pointed out, "International bankers make money by extending credit to governments.  The greater the debt of the political state, the larger the interest returned to lenders.  The national banks of Europe are (also) owned and controlled by private interests.  We recognize in a hazy sort of way that the Rothschilds and the Warburgs of Europe and the houses of JP Morgan, Kuhn Loeb & Co., Schiff, Lehman and Rockefeller possess and control vast wealth.  How they acquire this vast financial power and employ it is a mystery to most of us.  Source:  The Federal Reserve Cartel: Part IV: A Financial Parasite *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:bf1d47de-4ad8-4fbf-b1ae-b1032ed354f7-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:bf1d47de-4ad8-4fbf-b1ae-b1032ed354f7-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Sulfur: From Ancient Material to Modern Industry and Warfare From the biblical "fire and brimstone" to cutting-edge battery technology, sulfur has played a pivotal role in human civilization for millennia. This bright yellow element, essential for life itself and crucial to modern industry, deserves far more recognition than it typically receives. As the tenth most abundant element in the universe and the third most abundant mineral in the human body, sulfur touches nearly every aspect of our daily lives—from the proteins that build our bodies to the fertilizers that grow our food. Sulfur is a non-metallic chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. While you might recognize it by its distinctive yellow color and association with volcanic regions, sulfur's true significance extends far beyond these surface characteristics. It's a fundamental building block of life, a cornerstone of industrial chemistry, and increasingly, a key player in sustainable technology development. This versatile element bridges the ancient and modern worlds, from its use in religious purification rituals to its critical role in next-generation energy storage systems. The Fundamental Chemistry Of Element 16 Sulfur occupies a unique position in the periodic table as a member of the chalcogen family (Group 16), sitting just below oxygen. With six valence electrons in its outer shell, sulfur exhibits remarkable chemical versatility, forming compounds with oxidation states ranging from -2 to +6. This flexibility allows sulfur to participate in an extraordinary variety of chemical reactions and form countless compounds essential to both life and industry. At room temperature, sulfur appears as a bright yellow, crystalline solid with a relatively low melting point of 115.21°C (239.38°F). Its softness—rating just 1.5-2.5 on the Mohs scale—makes it easy to handle and process. The element's poor conductivity of both heat and electricity classifies it as an excellent insulator, while its density of approximately 2.07 g/cm³ makes it relatively light compared to many other solid elements. Perhaps most fascinating is sulfur's ability to exist in more allotropes than any other element, with over 30 known forms. The most common form, alpha-sulfur, consists of crown-shaped rings containing eight sulfur atoms (S₈). When heated above 95.3°C, it transforms into beta-sulfur, and at higher temperatures, it can form long polymer chains that give molten sulfur its characteristic increase in viscosity. This structural diversity contributes to sulfur's wide range of applications and behaviors under different conditions. Nature's Sulfur Treasury Spans Earth & Life Sulfur's presence in nature reflects its cosmic abundance and geological importance. Volcanic environments serve as nature's most dramatic sulfur factories, where hot gases rich in hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide condense around vents and fumaroles, creating stunning yellow deposits. Indonesia's Mount Ijen, where miners still extract "devil's gold" from the active crater, provides a modern example of this ancient geological process. Beyond volcanic regions, vast sulfur deposits lie hidden in salt domes along the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana. These formations, created over millions of years as salt layers rose through overlying rocks, contain cap rocks where bacterial action has converted sulfate minerals into nearly pure elemental sulfur. Similar deposits occur in evaporite formations worldwide, where ancient seas evaporated and left behind layers of gypsum and anhydrite. The sulfur cycle represents one of Earth's major biogeochemical processes, with the element constantly moving between the atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. Marine phytoplankton alone release millions of tons of dimethyl sulfide annually, which influences cloud formation and climate regulation. Rivers transport weathered sulfate from rocks to oceans, where it may be incorporated into marine sediments or released back to the atmosphere, completing this grand planetary circulation. In living organisms, sulfur appears primarily in the amino acids methionine and cysteine, which are essential components of proteins. Every cell in your body contains sulfur, from the keratin that strengthens your hair and nails to the enzymes that catalyze vital biochemical reactions. This biological sulfur ultimately derives from the environment, connecting all life to the planet's sulfur cycle. From Divine Brimstone To Chemical Revolution Humanity's relationship with sulfur stretches back to antiquity, when this "burning stone" held both practical and spiritual significance. Ancient Greeks recognized sulfur's pesticidal properties as early as 1000 BCE, while Romans burned it to fumigate public buildings and purify sacred spaces. The element's association with divine wrath—as the "brimstone" of biblical texts—reflects its connection to volcanic activity and its ability to burn with an otherworldly blue flame. Medieval alchemists elevated sulfur to one of their three fundamental principles (tria prima), alongside mercury and salt. To these early chemists, sulfur represented the soul, combustibility, and masculine energy. Its alchemical symbol—a triangle atop a cross—became known as "Satan's Cross" due to religious associations with hellfire. Despite these mystical overtones, alchemists' experiments with sulfur laid crucial groundwork for modern chemistry. The transformation from mystical substance to industrial commodity began with the development of gunpowder, where sulfur served as one of three essential ingredients. Sicily dominated global sulfur production for over a century, with its volcanic deposits providing up to 75% of the world's supply by the mid-1800s. This monopoly ended with Herman Frasch's revolutionary extraction process in 1891, which used superheated water to melt underground sulfur deposits and pump them to the surface as 99.5% pure liquid sulfur. A Workhorse Element Powering Modern Industry Today, sulfur stands as one of the most important industrial elements, with over 246 million tonnes of sulfuric acid produced annually—making it the world's largest volume industrial chemical. This remarkable scale reflects sulfur's central role in countless manufacturing processes, from fertilizer production to petroleum refining. The fertilizer industry consumes approximately 60% of global sulfur production, using sulfuric acid to convert phosphate rock into soluble fertilizers that feed billions of people. Without sulfur, modern agriculture would collapse, as it's now recognized as the fourth essential macronutrient alongside nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. This agricultural connection creates a direct link between sulfur availability and global food security. In petroleum refining, sulfur removal has become increasingly critical as environmental regulations tighten. The desulfurization process not only reduces harmful emissions but also produces elemental sulfur as a valuable byproduct. Over 80% of today's sulfur supply comes from this "involuntary production" during oil and gas processing, representing a remarkable shift from traditional mining. The rubber industry owes its existence to Charles Goodyear's 1839 discovery of vulcanization, where sulfur creates cross-links between polymer chains, transforming sticky natural rubber into durable materials suitable for tires and countless other applications. Meanwhile, the pharmaceutical industry relies on sulfur compounds in over 362 FDA-approved drugs, from antibiotics to anti-inflammatory medications. Life's Essential Element Supports Every Cell Sulfur's biological importance cannot be overstated—it's the third most abundant mineral in the human body after calcium and phosphorus. The sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine play crucial roles in protein structure and function. Methionine serves as the starting amino acid for virtually all protein synthesis, while cysteine forms disulfide bonds that give proteins their three-dimensional shapes and stability. These sulfur connections appear throughout the body's structural proteins. Keratin, rich in cysteine, provides strength and flexibility to hair, skin, and nails. Collagen and elastin, which give structure to connective tissues, also depend on sulfur cross-links for their mechanical properties. The body's most important antioxidant, glutathione, requires cysteine for its synthesis and function in protecting cells from oxidative damage. Dietary sulfur comes primarily from protein-rich foods, with eggs, meat, fish, and dairy providing abundant methionine. Plant sources include legumes, nuts, and whole grains, while garlic, onions, and cruciferous vegetables offer unique sulfur compounds with additional health benefits. Adults typically need about 1,000 mg of methionine daily, though requirements may increase with age or during illness. Recent research has revealed sulfur's involvement in cellular communication and gene regulation through compounds like S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), which serves as the body's primary methyl donor. This connection links sulfur metabolism to epigenetics, aging, and disease prevention, opening new avenues for therapeutic interventions. Environmental Guardian & Climate Player Sulfur's environmental story encompasses both challenges and opportunities. Industrial sulfur dioxide emissions have caused significant environmental damage through acid rain, which harms forests, lakes, and buildings. However, strict regulations have dramatically reduced these emissions in developed countries, with the EPA strengthening standards as recently as December 2024. The natural sulfur cycle plays a complex role in climate regulation. Volcanic eruptions can inject millions of tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, creating sulfate aerosols that reflect sunlight and cool the planet. The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption demonstrated this effect dramatically, causing global temperatures to drop by 0.5°C for nearly two years. This cooling effect has sparked controversial research into stratospheric aerosol injection as a potential geoengineering solution to climate change. Scientists estimate that deliberately adding sulfur compounds to the upper atmosphere could offset global warming at a cost of $2-8 billion annually. However, this approach carries significant risks, including potential damage to the ozone layer and unpredictable changes to regional weather patterns. On the positive side, stricter environmental regulations have transformed sulfur from a pollutant into a valuable resource. Modern oil refineries and power plants capture sulfur compounds that would otherwise enter the atmosphere, converting them into useful products. This circular economy approach exemplifies how environmental protection can drive innovation and resource efficiency. Pioneering Tomorrow's Sustainable Technologies The future of sulfur looks remarkably bright, particularly in energy storage technology. Lithium-sulfur batteries promise to revolutionize electric vehicles and renewable energy storage, offering theoretical energy densities of 2,600 Wh/kg—nearly five times that of current lithium-ion batteries. The market for these next-generation batteries is projected to grow from $1 billion in 2024 to nearly $30 billion by 2034. Recent breakthroughs have addressed long-standing challenges in sulfur battery technology. Researchers at UC San Diego developed a sulfur-iodine crystalline material that increases conductivity by 11 orders of magnitude, while teams at Drexel University created batteries lasting over 4,000 cycles using a stable form of sulfur. These advances bring commercial sulfur batteries closer to reality, potentially transforming transportation and grid storage. Nanotechnology represents another frontier for sulfur applications. The sulfur nanoparticle market is expected to reach $2.5 billion by 2033, driven by applications in agriculture, medicine, and environmental remediation. Scientists are developing sulfur-based materials that can capture pollutants, deliver drugs, and enhance crop yields while maintaining environmental sustainability. Perhaps most intriguingly, researchers have identified sulfur dioxide as a potential "fourth gasotransmitter" in the human body, joining nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide as signaling molecules. This discovery could lead to new therapeutic approaches for cardiovascular disease, inflammation, and other conditions. About Sulfur Sulfur is a remarkably versatile element with fascinating properties that span from the everyday to the extraordinary. This yellow solid can float on water, burns with an eerie blue flame, and exists in massive volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io that shoot sulfur hundreds of miles into space. Throughout history, humans have found countless uses for sulfur—from ancient Egyptians incorporating it into mummification processes to medieval doctors prescribing therapeutic sulfur baths, to the Chinese revolutionizing warfare by using it in gunpowder over a millennium ago. In nature, sulfur creates beautiful crystalline "flowers," enables bacteria to survive in extreme deep-sea volcanic vents exceeding 100°C, and is responsible for familiar phenomena like the tears from cutting onions and the notorious smell of skunk spray. This element holds the record for having the most structural forms of any element (over 30 allotropes), can transform through a rainbow of colors when heated, glows yellow-green under UV light, and even forms natural glass in volcanic conditions. From its essential role in plant protein synthesis to its presence in diamond mines and contribution to the distinctive smell of rain, sulfur proves to be one of nature's most intriguing and indispensable elements. Sulfur floats on water – Despite being a solid element, sulfur has a lower density than water, making it one of the few non-metallic elements that can float. It burns with a blue flame – When sulfur combusts, it produces a distinctive blue flame and the pungent smell of sulfur dioxide, which is why it was historically associated with supernatural phenomena. Sulfur exists on other planets – Jupiter's moon Io has massive sulfur volcanoes that spew yellow sulfur compounds hundreds of miles into space, creating the most volcanically active body in our solar system. Ancient Egyptians used sulfur for mummification – Sulfur compounds were used in the preservation process, helping to prevent bacterial decay in mummified remains. Sulfur can form "flowers" – When sulfur vapor condenses rapidly, it creates delicate, flower-like crystalline formations called "flowers of sulfur." It's the reason onions make you cry – Onions release sulfur compounds when cut, which react with the moisture in your eyes to form sulfuric acid, causing tears. Sulfur springs can preserve organic matter – The La Brea Tar Pits contain sulfur compounds that have perfectly preserved plants, animals, and insects for thousands of years. It changes color when heated – Sulfur transforms from yellow to red to brown to black as temperature increases, then back to yellow when cooled. Sulfur bacteria can live in extreme conditions – Some sulfur-eating bacteria thrive in temperatures over 100°C (212°F) near deep-sea volcanic vents, representing some of Earth's most ancient life forms. Medieval doctors prescribed sulfur baths – Sulfur hot springs were believed to cure everything from skin diseases to arthritis, and many historic spa towns were built around sulfur springs. Sulfur can explode when mixed with certain metals – Combinations of sulfur with potassium or sodium can create explosive compounds that ignite with just a spark. It's essential for plant protein synthesis – Plants cannot manufacture proteins without sulfur, making it as crucial as nitrogen for plant growth and survival. Sulfur compounds give skunks their smell – The notorious skunk spray contains sulfur-based thiols, which are among the most potent odor molecules known to science. Ancient Chinese used sulfur in gunpowder over 1,000 years ago – Sulfur was one of the three key ingredients in the world's first explosive powder, revolutionizing warfare and construction. Sulfur can form naturally occurring glass – In certain volcanic conditions, sulfur can cool so rapidly that it forms a natural glass-like substance called sulfur glass. It glows under ultraviolet light – Pure sulfur exhibits fluorescence when exposed to UV radiation, glowing with a distinctive yellow-green color. Sulfur has more allotropes than any other element – With over 30 different molecular arrangements, sulfur holds the record for structural diversity among all chemical elements. Diamond mines often contain sulfur – Many diamond deposits are associated with sulfur-rich geological formations, and sulfur inclusions can sometimes be found within diamonds themselves. Sulfur can be used as a natural pesticide – Elemental sulfur is still widely used in organic farming as an environmentally friendly fungicide and insecticide. The smell of rain contains sulfur – That distinctive "petrichor" smell after rainfall partly comes from sulfur compounds released by soil bacteria and carried in the air. Source:  What Is Sulfur? - Brian D. Colwell   Prehistoric Times–Present — Sulfur as a Useful Industrial Material Sulfur has been used by humans for thousands of years. Major uses include: Medicine Fumigation Metallurgy Religious rituals Gunpowder Fertilizers Petroleum refining Pharmaceuticals Rubber vulcanization Mining Chemical manufacturing By the nineteenth century, sulfur had become one of the foundational materials of the industrial age. 1840s–1900s — Industrial Sulfur Era Sulfur becomes essential for: Sulfuric acid production Fertilizer manufacturing Explosives Petroleum refining Chemical manufacturing 1900s–Present — Sulfur Becomes a Strategic Industrial Material Sulfur is used extensively in: Fertilizers Petroleum refining Pharmaceuticals Rubber Mining Batteries Chemical manufacturing Today, sulfur remains one of the most important industrial elements in the world. Most production now comes from oil and natural gas processing rather than traditional sulfur mining. 1917–1945 — Sulfur Becomes a Major Chemical Warfare Material Sulfur mustard, commonly called "mustard gas," becomes one of the most important chemical weapons of the twentieth century. The United States, Germany, Britain, and other powers conduct research, production, testing, and military deployment programs involving sulfur-based chemical agents. Thousands of military personnel are exposed during testing, training, and battlefield incidents. 1917 — United States Enters Chemical Warfare Program After entering World War I, the United States rapidly expands chemical weapons research. Research includes: Chlorine Phosgene Mustard gas 1918 — Mustard Gas Production Begins The United States begins large-scale production of sulfur mustard. 1918 — American University Experiment Station A major U.S. chemical warfare research center is established in Washington, D.C. 1918–1919 — World War I Mustard Gas Testing Military testing and training involving chemical agents are conducted. 1920s–1930s — Continued Chemical Warfare Research Chemical weapons programs are retained and expanded despite international restrictions.   *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1942–1945 — Secret Mustard Gas and Lewisite Human Experiments Thousands of U.S. servicemen participate in classified chemical warfare experiments involving mustard gas and Lewisite. Subjects were exposed through: Gas chambers Field exercises Patch tests directly applied to the skin Protective equipment trials Many participants were not fully informed about the nature of the tests. Records later showed that some suffered: Severe chemical burns Eye injuries Respiratory damage Long-term health complications Participants were often ordered not to discuss their involvement. 1993 — Mustard Gas Testing Publicly Acknowledged The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs publicly acknowledges the World War II mustard gas and Lewisite testing programs. The disclosure follows the declassification of records and increased congressional scrutiny. 1997 — Presidential Apology President Bill Clinton formally apologizes to veterans who were subjected to secret chemical and radiation experiments without informed consent. During a White House ceremony, Clinton states that the government failed to uphold the rights and dignity of those who participated in the experiments. 1954 — Castle Bravo Fallout and Project 4.1 The U.S. conducts the Castle Bravo nuclear test in the Marshall Islands. The explosion produces a much larger yield than expected, exposing residents of nearby islands to radioactive fallout. Following the accident, the U.S. launches Project 4.1, a classified medical study designed to evaluate the effects of radiation exposure on affected populations. Approximately 239 Marshall Islanders receive significant radiation exposure. Some Marshallese later argue that the medical study had been planned before the test, while U.S. officials maintain the exposure was accidental and the study was created afterward. 1954–1960s — Long-Term Radiation Monitoring Marshall Islanders exposed during Castle Bravo are monitored for years by U.S. medical researchers. Researchers document: Thyroid disease Radiation-related illnesses Growth abnormalities Long-term health effects The program later becomes a major source of controversy regarding informed consent and the ethics of Cold War human experimentation. 1940s–1970s period is when you start seeing a cluster of government human-subject programs that later become controversial: 1942–1945 — Mustard Gas and Lewisite tests 1945–1947 — Postwar radiation experiments begin 1950–1953 — BLUEBIRD / ARTICHOKE 1953 — MKUltra 1954 — Project 4.1 (Marshall Islands) 1963–1973 — Holmesburg Prison experiments 1932–1972 — Tuskegee Syphilis Study (running throughout much of this period) *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:bf1d47de-4ad8-4fbf-b1ae-b1032ed354f7-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:bf1d47de-4ad8-4fbf-b1ae-b1032ed354f7-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1942–1945 — Naval and Army Chamber Tests Gas chamber, field, and skin-patch exposure experiments are conducted. 1943–1945 — Race-Based Military Experiments Some studies separate participants by racial groups, including: African American soldiers Japanese American soldiers Puerto Rican soldiers White soldiers December 2, 1943 — Bari Air Raid An American ship carrying mustard gas munitions is struck during a German air raid on Bari, Italy. Hundreds of military personnel and civilians are exposed. 1945–1960s — Cold War Chemical Warfare Research Mustard gas remains part of U.S. chemical weapons stockpiles. 1991 — Human Experiment Records Receive Wider Public Attention Investigations and media reporting bring renewed scrutiny to wartime chemical testing programs. 1993 — Chemical Weapons Convention International treaty bans chemical weapons. 1990s–2023 — Chemical Weapons Destruction Program The United States destroys its declared chemical weapons stockpiles and dismantles Cold War chemical weapon inventories. The U.S. completed destruction of its declared chemical weapons stockpile on July 7, 2023. The OPCW confirmed that all declared chemical weapons stockpiles under the treaty had been verified as destroyed. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1f357cb8-206e-4a6b-acb7-42d2ce9fcfba-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1f357cb8-206e-4a6b-acb7-42d2ce9fcfba-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> How It Started During World War I, armies used mustard gas as a chemical weapon. Doctors noticed something unusual in exposed soldiers: Mustard gas damaged the bone marrow. White blood cell counts dropped dramatically. The chemical appeared to suppress rapidly dividing cells. Researchers later wondered whether a modified version of these chemicals might be used against cancers that also divide rapidly. World War II Research During World War II, scientists studied related compounds called nitrogen mustards. In 1942, physicians Louis Goodman and Alfred Gilman treated a patient with lymphoma using a nitrogen mustard compound. The tumor temporarily shrank, demonstrating that chemicals could be used to attack cancer cells. This became one of the foundations of modern chemotherapy. Important Distinction People often hear "chemotherapy came from mustard gas" and assume cancer patients are literally receiving battlefield mustard gas. That is not the case. Sulfur mustard (the warfare agent) is extremely toxic. Chemotherapy drugs are chemically modified compounds developed from the same scientific observations and related chemical families. Modern chemotherapy includes many drug classes that have nothing to do with mustard compounds. Examples of Mustard-Derived Chemotherapy Drugs Some cancer drugs descended from the nitrogen mustard research include: Mechlorethamine Cyclophosphamide Ifosfamide Chlorambucil Melphalan Many are still used today. Why This Matters The basic principle discovered was that substances that damage DNA can sometimes kill cancer cells because cancer cells divide rapidly. The challenge has always been that healthy cells also divide, which is why chemotherapy can cause: Hair loss Low blood counts Nausea Mouth sores Increased infection risk In simple terms: the first successful chemotherapy drugs grew out of research on mustard-gas-related chemicals, but modern cancer treatment is much broader than that one origin story. The Rise of the Khazars  550–650 AD — The Birth of the Khazars As the great Turkic empires of Central Asia fractured and collapsed, new powers emerged across the Eurasian steppe. Among them were the Khazars, a people who would eventually control one of the most valuable crossroads on Earth. Their homeland lay between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, north of the Caucasus Mountains, in a region where Europe, Asia, and the Middle East converged.  To the south stood the Byzantine Empire, the surviving eastern half of Rome. To the southeast, Islam was beginning its rapid expansion from Arabia. To the north stretched forests, rivers, and the scattered settlements of Slavic peoples. To the east lay the endless grasslands of the Eurasian steppe. The Khazars occupied the narrow space between these worlds, a position that would shape their destiny for centuries.  Unlike Rome or Persia, the Khazars did not inherit ancient cities, monumental architecture, or vast agricultural systems. Their strength came from mobility. They were horsemen, traders, diplomats, and warriors who understood the strategic value of controlling movement across immense distances. By the middle of the seventh century they had emerged as an independent regional power, occupying territory through which merchants, armies, and travelers increasingly passed.  The Khazars belonged to a long tradition of steppe peoples who had dominated the grasslands north of the Black Sea. Before them came the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, and Göktürks. Each had controlled portions of the same strategic corridor linking Europe and Asia. The Khazars inherited not only territory but also the military traditions, trade networks, and political realities of the steppe world.  Their early society revolved around horses, clan loyalties, trade, and warfare. A skilled rider could travel enormous distances across the open grasslands, making mobility one of the foundations of Khazar power. The rivers that crossed their territory connected distant regions, while the Caucasus Mountains provided gateways into the Middle East. Geography placed the Khazars in a position few kingdoms could match.  By 650 AD, they stood poised to become one of the most influential powers of the medieval world.  650–750 AD — Expansion and the Arab–Khazar Wars The century following the rise of the Khazars was marked by expansion, warfare, and growing wealth. As the Islamic Caliphates pushed northward through the Caucasus, the Khazars became one of the principal barriers between the Muslim world and the Eurasian steppe. Repeated campaigns turned the Caucasus into one of the most contested frontiers of the medieval world.  Arab armies crossed mountain passes seeking to extend their influence beyond the Caucasus while Khazar forces fought to preserve their independence and control of the northern trade routes. Neither side achieved a permanent victory. Instead, decades of conflict established the Khazars as a major military power capable of resisting one of the most formidable empires of the age.  These wars were not small border skirmishes. Entire armies marched across difficult terrain, cities changed hands, and thousands of soldiers died in campaigns that stretched across generations. The Khazars emerged from these struggles with a reputation as formidable warriors capable of defending their territory against one of the most powerful expansionist forces of the era.  While armies fought, commerce flourished. Merchants continued moving through Khazar territory carrying silk from Asia, silver from the Islamic world, and furs from the forests of the north. The Khazars recognized that prosperity came not only from conquest but from controlling the movement of goods. Their rulers collected tolls, customs duties, and transit fees from merchants traveling between continents.  Unlike many kingdoms, the Khazars often did not own the products that generated their wealth. Instead, they controlled the roads, rivers, ports, and caravan routes through which those products passed. Every merchant seeking protection, every caravan crossing the steppe, and every ship moving along the Volga contributed to the prosperity of the kingdom.  By the end of the eighth century, the Khazars had become one of the wealthiest powers of the Eurasian steppe. Their position between Europe, Asia, and the Islamic world allowed them to profit from commerce on a scale few contemporary states could match.  740–850 AD — The Jewish Kingdom of the Steppe As Khazar wealth and influence reached their peak, the ruling elite made one of the most unusual decisions in medieval history by adopting Judaism.  Surrounded by Christian Byzantium and powerful Muslim Caliphates, the Khazars occupied a delicate geopolitical position. Conversion to Christianity might have increased Byzantine influence over the kingdom. Conversion to Islam might have drawn the Khazars into the orbit of the Caliphates. Judaism offered a third path, allowing the Khazar rulers to maintain independence while preserving relations with both neighboring powers.  Exactly how many Khazars converted remains debated. Most historians believe the royal court and segments of the ruling elite embraced Judaism, while much of the broader population remained religiously diverse. Nevertheless, the conversion transformed the kingdom into something unique. No major European kingdom followed the same path. No great Christian empire did so. No major Islamic state made such a choice. Yet on the Eurasian steppe, a powerful kingdom adopted Judaism while standing between two rival civilizations.  Figures such as Bulan, Obadiah, and Joseph appear in later traditions and correspondence associated with the kingdom. Their names became linked to one of the most fascinating religious transformations of the medieval era. Although many details remain uncertain, the conversion ensured that the Khazars would occupy a unique place in world history.  At the same time, the capital city of Atil emerged as one of the great commercial centers of Eurasia. Situated near the Volga delta, it connected the northern forests of Europe with the Islamic world and Central Asia. Contemporary accounts describe a bustling city filled with merchants, warehouses, markets, docks, and ships arriving from distant lands.  The diversity of Atil impressed many visitors. Jews, Christians, Muslims, and followers of older pagan traditions lived and traded within the same commercial environment. Multiple languages could be heard in the markets. Goods arrived from Scandinavia, Byzantium, Persia, and Central Asia. The city reflected the kingdom itself: a meeting place where civilizations intersected.  During this period the Khazars reached the height of their influence. Their armies protected trade routes, their rulers governed a prosperous state, and their merchants participated in one of the largest commercial systems of the medieval world. For a brief period, the Khazar kingdom stood at the center of Eurasia, connecting worlds that otherwise might never have met.  Wealth, Government, Religion, and the Viking Connection  850–950 AD — Wealth, Diversity, and Power By the ninth century, the Khazar Empire had become one of the most prosperous trading states in Eurasia. Its wealth rested not upon vast agricultural estates or great manufacturing centers, but upon control of movement. The kingdom occupied the space where multiple worlds met, allowing Khazar rulers to profit from commerce flowing in every direction.  From the forests of the north came furs, honey, wax, timber, and amber. From Asia arrived silk, spices, precious stones, and luxury goods. Silver coins poured northward from the Islamic world, while horses, livestock, and slaves moved across the steppe. Merchants traveled constantly between Scandinavia, Byzantium, Persia, and Central Asia, carrying goods that changed hands many times before reaching their final destination.  The Khazars often never owned these products. Their prosperity came from controlling the routes through which the products moved. River crossings generated revenue. Caravan routes generated revenue. Ports generated revenue. Merchants paid tolls, duties, and fees for protection. The kingdom's treasury expanded because the Khazars sat astride one of the busiest commercial corridors in the medieval world.  This prosperity allowed the Khazars to maintain a stable and sophisticated state. Unlike many steppe powers that depended almost entirely on military conquest, the Khazars benefited from a steady flow of trade that continued year after year. Wealth created stability, and stability attracted even more merchants.  The kingdom's political system reflected its unusual character. At its apex stood the Khagan, a ruler whose authority carried sacred significance. Foreign visitors often described the Khagan as a semi-sacred figure who symbolized the unity and legitimacy of the state. Yet the day-to-day responsibilities of government rested largely with another official known as the Bek.  The Bek directed military campaigns, diplomacy, taxation, and administration. While the Khagan represented spiritual and ceremonial authority, the Bek exercised practical power. This dual structure fascinated many outside observers because it differed from the systems found in most neighboring kingdoms.  The arrangement allowed the Khazars to separate sacred legitimacy from political administration, creating a balance that helped maintain stability across a vast and diverse territory.   The Religious World of the Khazars  Although the conversion of the ruling elite to Judaism remains the most famous aspect of Khazar history, the kingdom was never exclusively Jewish. Long before the royal court embraced Judaism, the Khazars practiced forms of Turkic paganism rooted in the traditions of the Eurasian steppe.  Many likely worshipped Tengri, the sky god revered by numerous Turkic peoples. The heavens, nature, ancestral spirits, and the rhythms of the natural world played important roles in their spiritual life. Horses held particular significance, symbolizing status, mobility, military power, and wealth. The steppe itself shaped religious belief just as surely as it shaped daily life.  Yet the Khazars occupied one of the most cosmopolitan regions in the medieval world. Christianity entered through Byzantine influence. Islam arrived through merchants and diplomatic contacts with the Caliphates. Judaism spread through trade networks and eventually gained prominence within the royal court. By the ninth century, the kingdom contained followers of multiple religions living side by side.  Contemporary accounts suggest that different religious communities often maintained their own legal traditions and judges. While modern notions of religious tolerance should not be projected backward onto the medieval world, the Khazar kingdom appears to have been unusually diverse for its time.  The result was a society where traders, diplomats, travelers, and settlers from many backgrounds could operate within the same commercial environment. Religious diversity became one of the defining characteristics of the Khazar state.  Atil — Capital of the Crossroads  At the center of this world stood Atil, the Khazar capital. Located near the Volga delta, the city occupied one of the most strategic positions in Eurasia. It functioned as a gateway between the northern forests, the Islamic world, Central Asia, and the Black Sea region.  Merchants arriving in Atil encountered a city unlike most others of the age. Ships unloaded cargo from distant lands. Warehouses stored goods awaiting transport. Markets bustled with activity as traders negotiated deals involving commodities from multiple continents.  A visitor might hear numerous languages spoken within a single day. Scandinavian merchants could be found alongside Muslim traders, Byzantine representatives, Jewish scholars, and local steppe peoples. The city embodied the commercial spirit that made the Khazar kingdom wealthy.  The prosperity of Atil reflected the prosperity of the empire itself. As long as trade continued to flow, the city flourished. For generations, Atil served as one of the most important commercial hubs in Eurasia.  850–950 AD — The Viking Connection While the Khazars were enjoying their golden age, dramatic changes were taking place in the far north. Scandinavian traders and adventurers were beginning to explore the river systems of Eastern Europe. Many of these men, known today as Vikings or Varangians, discovered that the rivers flowing southward offered access to some of the richest markets in the world.  Traveling through what is now Russia and Ukraine, they moved along waterways that eventually connected to Khazar territory. These routes linked the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, creating commercial highways stretching across thousands of miles.  The relationship between the Vikings and the Khazars proved mutually beneficial. Scandinavian merchants brought furs, amber, weapons, and slaves from the north. In return, they acquired silver, luxury goods, and products arriving from the Islamic world and Asia.  The scale of this commerce can still be seen today. Thousands of Islamic silver coins discovered in Scandinavian hoards originated from trade networks that passed through Khazar territory. The silver that enriched Viking societies often traveled through Khazar-controlled routes before reaching the north.  For a time, both peoples prospered from this arrangement. The Vikings gained access to wealthy markets. The Khazars collected tolls and duties from the movement of goods. Commerce tied together regions that would otherwise have remained isolated from one another.  Yet the very success of these trade routes contained the seeds of future problems. As Scandinavian influence expanded and new political centers emerged along the rivers of Eastern Europe, powerful rivals began to recognize the enormous wealth generated by commerce. Eventually, some of those rivals would seek not merely to use the trade routes but to control them.  By the middle of the tenth century, the forces that would eventually destroy the Khazar Empire were already gathering beyond the horizon. The kingdom remained wealthy and powerful, but the balance that had sustained it for centuries was beginning to change.  The Fall, Disappearance, and Legacy of the Khazars  900–965 AD — Vikings, Rus, and the Changing World During the tenth century, the commercial networks that had enriched the Khazars for generations became increasingly contested. Scandinavian traders, adventurers, and settlers continued moving southward through the river systems of Eastern Europe, carrying goods between the Baltic and the Islamic world. What had once been a loose network of trading communities was gradually evolving into something more powerful.  Along the rivers that connected northern Europe to Byzantium, new political centers emerged. The Rus, originally linked to Scandinavian traders and warriors, increasingly established themselves as rulers rather than mere merchants. Cities such as Kyiv grew in wealth and influence as commerce expanded along the Dnieper and Volga river systems.  For many years the Khazars and the Rus benefited from one another. The Khazars profited from trade moving through their territory, while the Rus gained access to the lucrative markets of the south. Over time, however, cooperation gave way to competition. The Rus increasingly understood that the enormous wealth flowing through the region could be controlled directly rather than shared with Khazar authorities.  At the same time, pressure mounted along the steppe frontiers. Nomadic peoples such as the Pechenegs competed for territory and influence. Trade routes shifted as new commercial centers developed. Alliances that had once strengthened the Khazar kingdom became less reliable. Although the empire remained prosperous, the foundations of its power were becoming increasingly fragile.  The challenge facing the Khazars was not a single enemy but a changing world. The trade networks that had made them wealthy were evolving. New powers were rising. Old assumptions no longer held. The kingdom that had dominated the crossroads of Eurasia for centuries found itself confronting forces it could no longer fully control.  965–969 AD — The Fall of the Khazar Empire  The decisive blow came from the north under the leadership of Sviatoslav I of Kyiv. Unlike many rulers who sought alliances or tributary arrangements, Sviatoslav pursued direct control. He understood that whoever controlled the trade routes controlled the wealth of the region, and he intended for that wealth to flow through Rus hands rather than Khazar territory.  Beginning in the 960s, his armies launched a series of campaigns against the Khazar state. Strongholds that had guarded trade routes for generations came under attack. The fortress of Sarkel, one of the most important defensive positions in the kingdom, fell to Rus forces. Other centers soon followed.  The greatest blow came with the destruction of Atil. For centuries the city had served as the commercial heart of the Khazar world, linking Scandinavia, Byzantium, Central Asia, and the Islamic world. Merchants from distant lands had crowded its markets, and wealth from three continents had flowed through its docks and warehouses. Now the city that symbolized Khazar prosperity faced devastation.  The fall of Atil represented more than the loss of a capital. It signaled the collapse of the system upon which the entire kingdom depended. Trade routes shifted. Political authority disintegrated. Local rulers and neighboring peoples filled the vacuum left by the declining empire.  The destruction was surprisingly swift. A state that had stood among the most influential powers of Eurasia for centuries ceased to function as a major political force within only a few years. The roads remained. The rivers continued to flow. Merchants still traveled between continents. Yet the kingdom that had once controlled those movements disappeared from the map.   After 969 AD — The Disappearance of the Khazars  The fall of the empire did not mean the immediate disappearance of the people. Communities survived in various regions, and remnants of Khazar influence continued to appear in historical records for generations. Yet the kingdom itself never recovered.  Unlike the Roman Empire, which left successor states, or dynasties such as the Romanovs and Habsburgs, whose descendants can still be traced today, the Khazars gradually faded from history as a distinct people. Their cities declined. Their political institutions vanished. Their language disappeared from common use. Over time they were absorbed into neighboring populations.  Most historians believe Khazar descendants merged into a variety of surrounding communities, including Slavic, Turkic, Caucasian, and Crimean populations. Rather than disappearing overnight, they dissolved gradually into the peoples who inherited their former lands.  This process was not unusual for steppe civilizations. The Scythians, Sarmatians, and many other powerful peoples had experienced similar fates. They rose to prominence, controlled vast territories, and eventually blended into the populations around them. The Khazars followed a pattern repeated many times across Eurasian history.  Yet their disappearance continues to fascinate historians because of the contrast between their former power and their later obscurity. For centuries they had occupied one of the richest crossroads in the medieval world. Then, within a relatively short period, they became difficult to trace.  900–1200 AD — The Khazars and the Early Roma  One of the more intriguing comparisons in Eurasian history involves the Khazars and the ancestors of today's Roma. During the final centuries of Khazar history, the earliest stages of the Roma migration were beginning far to the east.  The Khazars flourished between approximately 650 and 969 AD. The ancestors of the Roma began moving westward from northwestern India sometime between roughly 900 and 1200 AD. This means that for a brief period, the decline of one people overlapped with the emergence of another.  The contrast between them could hardly have been greater. The Khazars controlled territory, governed cities, collected taxes, maintained armies, and dominated trade routes. They occupied the top of the political and economic system. The Roma, by contrast, moved through territories controlled by others. Rather than governing kingdoms, they adapted to changing circumstances as they traveled across Asia and Europe.  Yet similarities existed as well. Both peoples became associated with mobility, horses, and long-distance movement. Both are known largely through the writings of outsiders rather than extensive collections of their own surviving literature. Both demonstrated remarkable adaptability in regions where political boundaries changed frequently.  The role of horses illustrates the difference between them. For the Khazars, horses represented military power and imperial authority. Their cavalry armies helped build and defend a kingdom stretching across the steppe. For the Roma, horses became tools of economic survival, contributing to occupations that allowed communities to maintain independence while living among larger societies.  The Khazars are remembered because they became powerful. The Roma are remembered because they endured. One people built an empire and gradually disappeared. The other survived for centuries without an empire while preserving a recognizable identity across dozens of countries.  The Legacy of the Khazars  The story of the Khazars is ultimately part of a much larger story stretching across more than two thousand years of Eurasian history. Before them came the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, and Göktürks. After them came the Kievan Rus, Pechenegs, Cumans, Mongols, Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, and Russian Empire. Different peoples rose and fell, but the geography remained the same.  The corridor between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea remained one of the most valuable strategic regions in the world. Whoever controlled it gained access to trade, resources, military routes, and communication networks connecting entire civilizations. The Khazars happened to occupy that position during one of the most dynamic periods of the medieval age.  Their legacy rests upon several remarkable achievements. They served as a buffer between the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world. They controlled trade routes that linked Scandinavia with the Middle East. They built one of the wealthiest commercial states of the early Middle Ages. Their ruling elite adopted Judaism, making them unique among the major powers of their era. And they demonstrated how a kingdom could prosper through commerce rather than relying solely upon conquest.  Perhaps most importantly, the Khazars remind us that some of history's most influential societies leave behind the fewest monuments. Rome left ruins. Egypt left pyramids. The Khazars left trade routes, scattered records, archaeological traces, and a mystery.  For roughly three centuries they stood at the center of the Eurasian world. Merchants crossed their lands. Empires negotiated with their rulers. Armies fought across their frontiers. Then they gradually passed into history, leaving behind one of the most fascinating stories of the medieval age.  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c70bca77-9fbb-4db2-a8a5-28c23ffd4de6-48" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c70bca77-9fbb-4db2-a8a5-28c23ffd4de6-48" data-testid= "conversation-turn-98" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> They certainly could be ruthless. The mistake is imagining them as either "peaceful traders" or "brutal warriors." They were both. The Khazars lived in one of the toughest neighborhoods on Earth. To survive between the Byzantine Empire, the Arab Caliphates, Viking traders, Rus princes, and various nomadic tribes, they had to be hard people. Soft kingdoms rarely lasted three centuries on the Eurasian steppe. Their rulers collected tribute from subordinate peoples. They fought major wars against Arab armies for generations. They maintained cavalry forces capable of defending enormous territories. Like virtually every major power of the period, they participated in the slave trade, which was one of the most profitable businesses of the medieval world. Captives from Eastern Europe and the steppe could be sold into markets farther south for significant profit. The Khazars could also be politically ruthless. Several neighboring tribes paid tribute to them, and when tribute stopped, military force often followed. Medieval states generally did not separate economics from coercion. The ability to collect taxes depended upon the ability to punish those who refused to pay. What makes them appear less ruthless than groups like the Huns or Mongols is partly a matter of reputation. The Huns and Mongols became famous for spectacular campaigns of conquest that terrified entire regions. The Khazars built their wealth primarily through trade. As a result, historical sources often emphasize merchants, diplomacy, and commerce rather than battlefield destruction. Yet commerce itself required force. A kingdom cannot collect tolls on thousands of miles of trade routes unless merchants know there is an army behind those tolls. The Khazars maintained that army. If I were writing them into a historical profile, I would describe them this way: The Khazars were pragmatic rather than sentimental. They preferred profit to destruction, but they were fully prepared to use violence when profit, security, or political control required it. Their ideal outcome was not a burned city but a city paying taxes. Not a dead merchant but a merchant paying tolls. Not a conquered people wiped out, but a conquered people sending tribute year after year. That is a different kind of ruthlessness. The Mongols often became rich by conquering. The Khazars often became rich by controlling. For centuries they sat astride the trade routes of Eurasia like toll collectors on the world's busiest highway. Anyone who wanted to move goods between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East often found themselves paying the Khazars first. That required diplomacy, intelligence, and commercial skill—but it also required the willingness to use force against anyone who challenged their authority. So I would not call them "nice." I would call them hard, practical, commercially minded, and capable of considerable ruthlessness when necessary. That combination may be closer to the reality of the Khazar ruling class than either the image of peaceful merchants or savage conquerors. The Khazars disappeared in the strongest sense. Their state collapsed, their language vanished, their ruling institutions disappeared, and over time they were absorbed into surrounding populations. Historians can trace what happened generally, but there is no modern "Khazar nation" and no recognized Khazar royal family carrying on today. They effectively dissolved into history. The Romanovs lost their empire, but not their bloodline. 1917–1918 — The Fall of the Romanovs The Russian Revolution destroyed the Romanov monarchy. In 1918, Nicholas II and his immediate family were executed. To many observers it looked like the dynasty had ended. It had not. Numerous Romanov relatives survived because the dynasty was large. Some escaped Russia, settled across Europe and America, married into other noble families, and continued the bloodline. The empire disappeared, but Romanov descendants remain alive today. The Habsburgs experienced something similar. 1918 — The End of the Habsburg Empire When the First World War ended, the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed. The Habsburg monarchy lost its throne, territory, and political power. What had once been one of Europe's most powerful dynasties suddenly became a private family. Yet the Habsburg family itself survived. Members continued living throughout Europe, holding titles socially rather than politically. Today there are still numerous descendants of the Habsburg line. The contrast is interesting: The Khazars The state disappeared. The ruling class disappeared. The language disappeared. The identity largely disappeared. The Romanovs The empire disappeared. The family survived. The Habsburgs The empire disappeared. The family survived. In some ways the Khazars are closer to the: Scythians Sarmatians Huns These were peoples who dominated enormous territories and then gradually merged into later populations. The Romanovs and Habsburgs are closer to what historians call dynastic collapses. Their governments vanished, but the families continued. That's one reason the Khazars remain more mysterious. We can point to living Romanov descendants. We can point to living Habsburg descendants. We cannot do the same with the Khazars. Their empire vanished, and the people who once called themselves Khazars gradually became something else. That's a much rarer outcome in recorded history. Absolutely. In fact, the Khazars are interesting because they are not unique. History is filled with peoples who seemed powerful, important, and permanent in their own time, only to fade into larger populations later. c. 700 BC–300 AD — The Scythians For centuries the Scythians dominated the grasslands north of the Black Sea. Greek historians wrote about them. Persian kings fought them. They controlled trade routes and enormous territories. Then they gradually disappeared. Not because they were exterminated, but because they merged into later populations. Today there is no Scythian nation, no Scythian language, and no Scythian royal family. What survives are archaeological sites, burial mounds, and historical accounts. c. 300 BC–400 AD — The Sarmatians The Sarmatians replaced the Scythians as major powers across much of the steppe. Roman writers discussed them extensively. They fought wars, controlled trade routes, and influenced Europe for centuries. Then they too faded into later populations. Most people today have never heard of them despite their importance. c. 370–500 AD — The Huns When the Huns appeared, they terrified much of Europe. Under Attila the Hun they built one of the most feared empires of late antiquity. After Attila's death, the empire fractured rapidly. Within a few generations, the Huns had largely disappeared as a distinct people. Historians still debate where many of their descendants went. c. 600–1000 AD — The Avars The Avar Khaganate controlled large portions of Central Europe for centuries. They fought Byzantium, collected tribute, and ruled an impressive state centered in the Carpathian Basin. Then they vanished. By the Middle Ages, the Avars had largely been absorbed into surrounding populations. c. 650–969 AD — The Khazars The Khazars fit into this same pattern. For roughly three centuries they stood at the center of Eurasian trade. Then their state collapsed and their identity gradually dissolved into neighboring peoples. c. 1200–1500 AD — The Cumans The Cumans dominated much of the Eurasian steppe before the Mongol invasions. They were powerful enough that kings, emperors, and princes negotiated with them. Today there is no Cuman state. Most descendants were absorbed into neighboring populations. The Goths This one surprises many people. The Visigoths conquered Spain. The Ostrogoths ruled Italy. For a time, the Goths were among the most important peoples in Europe. Then they disappeared as a separate identity. Modern Spaniards are not walking around calling themselves Visigoths. The people remained. The label vanished. The Vandals The Vandals conquered North Africa and even sacked Rome in 455 AD. Their kingdom once controlled major Mediterranean territory. Today they survive mostly as a word in the English language. The people themselves disappeared into later populations. The Picts The Picts ruled much of what is now Scotland for centuries. They fought Romans. They built kingdoms. They left carved stones and monuments. Then they gradually merged with neighboring peoples and vanished as a separate identity. Why It Happens Most people imagine history as nations replacing nations. In reality, history is often populations blending into populations. A kingdom falls. The ruling family disappears. People marry neighbors. Languages change. Religions change. Within a few generations, people who once thought of themselves as Khazars, Goths, Picts, or Scythians begin thinking of themselves as something else. Why the Khazars Fascinate People The Khazars sit in an unusual middle ground. They were important enough that historians know they existed. They were wealthy enough to influence international trade. They were unusual enough to attract attention because of their Jewish ruling elite. Yet they disappeared enough to leave major unanswered questions. That combination—power, wealth, influence, and disappearance—is what keeps people interested in them more than a thousand years later. In many ways, the greatest mystery in history is not how empires rise. It's how entire peoples can dominate a region for centuries and then leave behind little more than ruins, scattered records, and a name in an old chronicle. Broken Treaties and Land Cessions (1778–1871) Approximately 370 treaties ratified by the United States. Millions of acres transferred through treaties, purchases, coercion, and congressional actions. Treaty-making ended in 1871. Many modern tribal legal claims trace back to disputed treaty obligations, land seizures, or compensation agreements. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:1457509e-d7bc-4982-ac92-0a23fc69a475-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:1457509e-d7bc-4982-ac92-0a23fc69a475-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Native American Treaty Timeline 1763 — Royal Proclamation of 1763 Issued by the British Crown after the French and Indian War. Recognized Native lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. Restricted colonial settlement beyond the proclamation line. 1778 — Treaty of Fort Pitt First treaty between the United States and a Native nation. Signed with the Delaware Nation. 1784 — Treaty of Fort Stanwix Signed with the Iroquois Confederacy after the American Revolution. Large land cessions required. 1785 — Treaty of Hopewell Agreements with Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw nations. Established boundaries and trade arrangements. 1790 — Indian Trade and Intercourse Act Federal government claims sole authority over Native treaties and land purchases. 1794 — Treaty of Canandaigua Agreement between the United States and the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois). Still recognized today by some nations. 1795 — Treaty of Greenville Ends the Northwest Indian War. Native nations cede much of present-day Ohio. 1803 — Louisiana Purchase United States acquires vast territory from France. Native nations are not consulted despite occupying much of the land. 1814 — Treaty of Fort Jackson Following the Creek War. Creek Nation loses approximately 23 million acres. 1825–1828  -Numerous treaties accelerate land cessions in the Southeast. 1830 — Indian Removal Act Not a treaty but one of the most consequential federal laws. Leads to forced removals. 1835 — Treaty of New Echota Signed by a small Cherokee faction. Used as justification for Cherokee removal despite widespread opposition. 1838–1839 — Trail of Tears  -Forced removal of Cherokee people to Indian Territory. 1851 — First Treaty of Fort Laramie Recognizes territories of Plains tribes. Promises safe travel routes and annual payments. 1854 — Treaty of Medicine Creek  -Establishes reservations in the Pacific Northwest. 1855 — Treaty of Walla Walla  -Major treaty involving tribes of the Northwest. 1864 — Sand Creek Massacre  -Occurs despite prior agreements and peace assurances. 1868 — Second Treaty of Fort Laramie Recognizes the Great Sioux Reservation. Includes the Black Hills. 1871 — Peshtigo Fire  -Entire communities erased. Indian Appropriations Act Congress ends treaty-making with tribes. Tribes no longer treated as independent treaty partners. 1874  -Gold discovered in the Black Hills. 1877 Congress seizes the Black Hills after the Great Sioux War. Widely regarded as a violation of the 1868 treaty. 1887 — Dawes Act Breaks up communal tribal lands. Millions of acres transferred out of Native control. 1890 — Wounded Knee Massacre  -Marks the end of the Indian Wars era. 1924 — Indian Citizenship Act  -Grants U.S. citizenship to Native Americans. 1934 — Indian Reorganization Act  -Reverses parts of the Dawes policy. 1946 — Indian Claims Commission  -Created to address historical treaty claims. 1975 — Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act  -Expands tribal authority and self-governance. 1980 — United States v. Sioux Nation Supreme Court rules that the Black Hills were taken illegally. Financial compensation offered. Many Sioux tribes refuse payment and continue to seek return of the land. United States v. Sioux Nation American Buffalo Slaughter Early 1800s — Estimated 20–30 million bison roam North America. 1862 — Homestead Act accelerates settlement of the Great Plains. 1865–1883 — Peak buffalo slaughter. 1867–1868 — Large-scale commercial hide hunting begins along railroad routes. 1870s — Industrial hunting reaches maximum intensity. 1874 — U.S. Congress considers protection legislation, but it is not enacted. 1883–1884 — Southern bison herd effectively destroyed. 1889 — Fewer than 1,000 bison remain in North America. 1905 — American Bison Society founded to help save the species. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-4" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-4" data-testid= "conversation-turn-10" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 900–1100 AD — Germany Becomes Known as "Ashkenaz" in Jewish Tradition Jewish communities living along the Rhine River begin referring to German lands as Ashkenaz, a biblical name that becomes associated with Germany in medieval Jewish writings. Important early Jewish centers include: Mainz Worms Speyer These communities become the foundation of what later becomes known as Ashkenazi Judaism. "Ashkenazi Jews" literally means: Jews of Ashkenaz (Germany) Over subsequent centuries, many Ashkenazi Jewish communities migrate eastward into: Poland Lithuania Ukraine Belarus Russia Hungary As a result, Ashkenazi Jews become strongly associated with Eastern Europe, even though the name Ashkenaz originated with the medieval Jewish communities of Germany. Modern Era — Ashkenazi Jews Worldwide Today, Ashkenazi Jews are the largest Jewish ethnic-cultural population in the world. Estimated population: Approximately 8–10 million people worldwide. Roughly 70–80% of the global Jewish population has at least some Ashkenazi ancestry. Largest populations today are found in: Israel United States Canada United Kingdom France Argentina Australia Ashkenazi Jews are represented across virtually every profession and field, including: Science Medicine Law Finance Banking Academia Journalism Government Technology Engineering Literature Film Music Business Philanthropy Notable areas of influence historically include: European commerce and trade Banking and finance Universities and scholarship Medical research Physics and mathematics Law and public policy Publishing and media Technology and entrepreneurship Ashkenazi communities have produced a disproportionately large number of notable scholars, scientists, physicians, writers, entrepreneurs, and public intellectuals relative to their population size. Major cultural contributions include: Development of Yiddish language and literature Rabbinic scholarship Modern Jewish religious movements Contributions to modern science and medicine Significant influence on twentieth-century literature, music, film, and higher education Today Ashkenazi Jews are widely integrated into the societies in which they live while maintaining religious, cultural, and family traditions that trace back to the medieval Jewish communities of Germany and the Rhineland. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Before the modern era, the Jewish world was much more balanced among several major communities: Ashkenazi Jews (Central and Eastern Europe) Sephardic Jews (Spain, Portugal, North Africa, Ottoman lands) Mizrahi Jews (Middle East and Persia) Smaller communities in places such as India, Ethiopia, Yemen, Central Asia, and China Around 1000 AD, Ashkenazi Jews were actually a relatively small branch of world Jewry. Large Jewish populations existed in places such as Baghdad, Egypt, Spain, and throughout the Islamic world. Several things changed that balance: Population Growth in Eastern Europe From roughly 1500–1900, Ashkenazi populations grew rapidly in: Poland Lithuania Ukraine Belarus Russia Hungary Some historians estimate that by the late 1800s, Ashkenazi Jews made up the vast majority of the world's Jewish population. Decline of Sephardic Centers The expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1497 dispersed Sephardic communities. While many rebuilt successful communities in the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, and elsewhere, they never experienced the same population explosion seen in Eastern Europe. Decline of Middle Eastern Communities Ancient Jewish communities in: Iraq Yemen Syria Egypt Iran Often remained relatively small in number. During the 20th century many emigrated, especially after the creation of Israel in 1948. One of the most striking examples is Baghdad. For centuries it was one of the most important Jewish cities in the world. Today its Jewish population is essentially gone. The Holocaust The Holocaust devastated Ashkenazi communities, killing millions. Yet despite this catastrophe, Ashkenazi Jews still remained the largest Jewish subgroup because their population had been so large before World War II. Modern Israel Since 1948, Israel has become a meeting point for: Ashkenazi Jews Sephardic Jews Mizrahi Jews Ethiopian Jews Yemenite Jews Jews from the former Soviet Union Jews from around the world As a result, many Israelis today have mixed ancestry from multiple Jewish traditions. One interesting historical irony is that some of the oldest Jewish communities—such as those in Iraq, Yemen, and parts of Persia—trace their roots back over 2,000 years, while the Ashkenazi communities that emerged in medieval Germany eventually became the largest Jewish population in the world. In terms of sheer numbers, the demographic center of Judaism shifted from the Middle East to Europe, and then in the 20th century shifted again toward Israel and North America. Before the Khazars c. 700 BC–300 AD — The Scythians Long before the Khazars appeared, the grasslands north of the Black Sea were dominated by the Scythians. These Iranian-speaking horse peoples controlled trade routes linking the Greek colonies of the Black Sea with the interior of Eurasia. Ancient writers described them as formidable riders, archers, and traders whose wealth came from their position between civilizations. c. 300 BC–400 AD — The Sarmatians As Scythian power declined, the Sarmatians emerged as the dominant force across much of the steppe. They inherited many of the same trade routes and horse-warrior traditions. For centuries they interacted with Rome, Persia, and various Germanic tribes while controlling movement across large portions of Eastern Europe. c. 370–500 AD — The Huns The arrival of the Huns transformed the steppe world. Their rapid expansion disrupted existing powers and helped trigger migrations throughout Europe. Although their empire did not survive long after the death of Attila the Hun, they demonstrated how a mobile steppe power could dominate enormous territories. c. 550–650 AD — The Göktürks Before the Khazars became independent, they were connected to the broader Turkic world shaped by the Göktürk Empire. The collapse of Göktürk authority created the political vacuum from which the Khazar state emerged. In many ways, the Khazars inherited the trade routes, military traditions, and political structures of earlier Turkic powers. The Khazar Era c. 650–969 AD — The Khazars For roughly three centuries the Khazars controlled the crossroads between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Their kingdom became wealthy from trade, served as a buffer between Byzantium and the Islamic world, and gained lasting fame through the adoption of Judaism by its ruling elite. After the Khazars c. 900–1240 AD — Kievan Rus Even before the Khazars disappeared, the rising state of Kievan Rus was beginning to challenge their dominance. Centered on Kyiv and the river systems of Eastern Europe, the Rus increasingly controlled trade flowing between Scandinavia and Byzantium. The campaigns of Sviatoslav helped bring the Khazar era to an end. c. 900–1200 AD — Pechenegs and Cumans After the fall of the Khazars, various Turkic nomadic peoples moved into portions of the former Khazar sphere. The Pechenegs and later the Cumans controlled large sections of the steppe and frequently interacted with Byzantium, the Rus, and neighboring powers. They inherited many of the same grasslands that had once belonged to the Khazars. c. 1240–1502 AD — The Mongols and the Golden Horde The greatest successor to the Khazar system was probably the Golden Horde. When the Mongols arrived in the thirteenth century, they united vast territories stretching from Eastern Europe to Asia. Like the Khazars, they profited from controlling trade routes across Eurasia, but on an even larger scale. c. 1500–1800 AD — Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Influence Following the decline of Mongol power, the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire became major powers in the region. They controlled important ports, trade routes, and military corridors around the Black Sea. c. 1700–1917 AD — Russian Empire The final great heir to much of the old Khazar territory was the Russian Empire. As Russia expanded southward, it absorbed territories that had once belonged to the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, Khazars, Pechenegs, Cumans, Mongols, and Crimean Tatars. 550–650 AD — The Birth of the Khazars As the great Turkic empires of Central Asia fractured and collapsed, new powers emerged across the Eurasian steppe. Among them were the Khazars, a people who would eventually control one of the most valuable crossroads on Earth. Their homeland lay between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, north of the Caucasus Mountains, in a region where Europe, Asia, and the Middle East converged.  To the south stood the Byzantine Empire, the surviving eastern half of Rome. To the southeast, Islam was beginning its rapid expansion from Arabia. To the north stretched forests, rivers, and the scattered settlements of Slavic peoples. To the east lay the endless grasslands of the Eurasian steppe. The Khazars occupied the narrow space between these worlds, a position that would shape their destiny for centuries.  Unlike Rome or Persia, the Khazars did not inherit ancient cities, monumental architecture, or vast agricultural systems. Their strength came from mobility. They were horsemen, traders, diplomats, and warriors who understood the strategic value of controlling movement across immense distances. By the middle of the seventh century they had emerged as an independent regional power, occupying territory through which merchants, armies, and travelers increasingly passed.   650–750 AD — Expansion and the Arab–Khazar Wars The century following the rise of the Khazars was marked by expansion, warfare, and growing wealth. As the Islamic Caliphates pushed northward through the Caucasus, the Khazars became one of the principal barriers between the Muslim world and the Eurasian steppe. Repeated campaigns turned the Caucasus into one of the most contested frontiers of the medieval world.  Arab armies crossed mountain passes seeking to extend their influence beyond the Caucasus, while Khazar forces fought to preserve their independence and control of the northern trade routes. Neither side achieved a permanent victory. Instead, decades of conflict established the Khazars as a major military power capable of resisting one of the most formidable empires of the age.  At the same time, commerce flourished. Caravans carrying silk from Asia, silver from the Islamic world, and furs from the forests of the north moved through Khazar territory in increasing numbers. The Khazars recognized that prosperity came not only from conquest but from controlling the movement of goods. Their rulers collected tolls, customs duties, and transit fees from merchants traveling between continents. By the end of the eighth century, the kingdom had become one of the wealthiest powers of the Eurasian steppe.   740–850 AD — The Jewish Kingdom of the Steppe As Khazar wealth and influence reached their peak, the ruling elite made one of the most unusual decisions in medieval history by adopting Judaism. Surrounded by Christian Byzantium and powerful Muslim Caliphates, the Khazars occupied a delicate geopolitical position. Conversion to Christianity might have increased Byzantine influence over the kingdom. Conversion to Islam might have drawn the Khazars into the orbit of the Caliphates. Judaism offered a third path.  Exactly how many Khazars converted remains debated, but most historians agree that the royal court and segments of the ruling elite embraced Judaism during this period. Figures such as Bulan, Obadiah, and Joseph appear in later traditions and correspondence associated with the kingdom. Their decision transformed the Khazars into a unique state situated between two great religious civilizations while belonging fully to neither.  At the same time, the capital city of Atil emerged as one of the great commercial centers of Eurasia. Situated near the Volga delta, it connected the northern forests of Europe with the Islamic world and Central Asia. Contemporary accounts describe a bustling city filled with merchants, warehouses, markets, and ships. Jews, Christians, Muslims, and followers of older pagan traditions lived and traded within the same commercial environment. For a brief period, Atil stood at the center of a vast network linking Scandinavia, Byzantium, Persia, and the steppes.    850–950 AD — Wealth, Diversity, and Gathering Storms By the ninth century, the Khazar Empire had become a sophisticated trading state whose wealth depended upon stability and commerce. Unlike many kingdoms that relied primarily upon agriculture, the Khazars prospered through their control of rivers, caravan routes, and strategic choke points. Goods arriving from every direction passed through their territory. Furs, honey, wax, timber, and amber arrived from the north. Silk, spices, and precious stones came from Asia. Silver, luxury goods, and coins flowed from the Islamic world. Horses, livestock, and slaves moved across the steppe in enormous numbers.  The kingdom's political system reflected its unusual character. At its apex stood the Khagan, a sacred ruler whose authority carried religious significance. Day-to-day power, however, rested with the Bek, who directed military affairs, diplomacy, and administration. This dual structure allowed the Khazars to combine ceremonial legitimacy with practical governance.  Yet beneath the prosperity, challenges were emerging. Viking merchants increasingly traveled southward along the rivers of Eastern Europe, linking Scandinavia with the Islamic world. New powers arose along those same waterways. Among them were the Rus principalities, whose leaders increasingly recognized the enormous wealth generated by the trade routes flowing through Khazar territory. At the same time, nomadic groups such as the Pechenegs applied pressure along the empire's borders. The foundations of Khazar power remained strong, but the first cracks had begun to appear.    900–965 AD — Vikings, Rus, and the Changing World During the tenth century, the commercial networks that had enriched the Khazars for generations became increasingly contested. Scandinavian traders, adventurers, and settlers traveled southward through the rivers of Eastern Europe, carrying goods between the Baltic and the Islamic world. Many Viking silver hoards discovered in Scandinavia originated from trade routes that passed through Khazar territory.  The rise of the Rus altered the balance of power. Centered around river systems that connected northern Europe to Byzantium, the Rus gradually expanded their influence over trade routes previously dominated by the Khazars. What had once been a partnership of convenience increasingly became a rivalry.  At the same time, traditional steppe pressures continued. Nomadic groups competed for territory and resources. Trade routes shifted. Political alliances changed. The kingdom remained wealthy, but its monopoly over commerce was weakening. Rivals no longer wished merely to trade through Khazar lands. They wanted control of the routes themselves.   965–969 AD — The Fall of the Khazar Empire  The decisive blow came from the north. Under the leadership of Sviatoslav I of Kyiv, the Rus launched a series of campaigns aimed at dismantling Khazar power and capturing the commercial networks that had enriched the kingdom for centuries.  Rus armies attacked key Khazar strongholds, including Sarkel and Atil. One by one, the empire's major centers fell. Cities that had once served as hubs of international commerce were devastated. Trade routes shifted. Political authority collapsed. Within only a few years, the Khazar Empire ceased to function as a major regional power.  The destruction was swift, but its consequences were lasting. The roads remained. The rivers continued to flow. Merchants still traveled between continents. Yet the kingdom that had once controlled these movements disappeared from the political map.   After 969 AD — The Disappearance of the Khazars  The fate of the Khazars after the fall of their empire remains one of the enduring mysteries of medieval history. Unlike ruling dynasties such as the Romanovs or Habsburgs, no clearly traceable Khazar lineage survives into the modern era. Most historians believe the population gradually merged into neighboring peoples, including Slavic, Turkic, Caucasian, and Crimean communities.  Over generations, the Khazar language disappeared. Their political institutions vanished. Their separate identity faded from the historical record. Yet traces of their influence remained embedded within the trade networks, cultures, and populations that succeeded them.  What survived was not the kingdom itself, but the memory of a remarkable state that had stood between Christianity and Islam, connected Europe with Asia, enriched itself through commerce rather than conquest, and adopted Judaism while occupying one of the most strategic locations on Earth. For roughly three centuries, the Khazars controlled one of the richest crossroads in the medieval world before passing into history as one of its most fascinating disappearances.  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:c70bca77-9fbb-4db2-a8a5-28c23ffd4de6-32" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:c70bca77-9fbb-4db2-a8a5-28c23ffd4de6-32" data-testid= "conversation-turn-66" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> The Powers of the Eurasian Crossroads c. 700 BC–300 AD — The Scythians The Scythians were among the first great horse cultures to dominate the grasslands north of the Black Sea. Famous for their cavalry, archery, and long-distance trade, they controlled routes linking the Greek colonies of the Black Sea with the interior of Eurasia. Their wealth came from their ability to move across vast distances and control commerce between settled civilizations and the open steppe. c. 300 BC–400 AD — The Sarmatians As Scythian power declined, the Sarmatians emerged as the dominant force across much of the same territory. They inherited many of the trade routes and military traditions of their predecessors while maintaining connections with Rome, Persia, and numerous tribal confederations throughout Eastern Europe. c. 370–500 AD — The Huns The arrival of the Huns transformed the political landscape of Europe and Asia. Under leaders such as Attila the Hun, they built a vast empire stretching across the steppe. Their rapid expansion disrupted older kingdoms, triggered migrations, and reshaped the balance of power across Europe. c. 550–650 AD — The Göktürks Following the decline of the Huns and other steppe confederations, the Göktürks established one of the first major Turkic empires. They controlled important segments of the Silk Road and connected East Asia with the western steppe. The political traditions, military structures, and trade networks they developed would heavily influence the Khazars who followed. c. 650–969 AD — The Khazars Emerging from the collapse of the Göktürk world, the Khazars established a wealthy kingdom between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. They became masters of trade, controlling routes that linked Scandinavia, Byzantium, Central Asia, and the Islamic world. Their ruling elite famously adopted Judaism, making them one of the most unusual states of the medieval era. For roughly three centuries they served as a commercial and military bridge between civilizations. c. 900–1240 AD — Kievan Rus, Pechenegs, and Cumans As Khazar power declined, new rivals emerged. The Kievan Rus expanded along the river systems of Eastern Europe and increasingly controlled the trade routes that had enriched the Khazars. At the same time, Turkic nomadic peoples such as the Pechenegs and later the Cumans occupied large portions of the steppe. Together these powers inherited much of the territory and influence once held by the Khazar kingdom. c. 1240–1502 AD — The Golden Horde The Mongol invasions transformed Eurasia. Following the conquests of Genghis Khan and his successors, the Golden Horde emerged as the dominant power across the western steppe. Like the Khazars before them, the Mongols profited enormously from controlling trade routes that linked Europe and Asia, though on an even larger scale. c. 1441–1783 AD — The Crimean Khanate After the fragmentation of Mongol authority, the Crimean Khanate became a major regional power. Centered in Crimea, it controlled important trade routes, maintained strong ties to the Ottoman Empire, and played a central role in the politics of Eastern Europe and the Black Sea region for centuries. c. 1453–1900s AD — Ottoman Influence in the Black Sea The Ottoman Empire gradually became the dominant power around the Black Sea. Through its control of ports, naval routes, and regional commerce, the Ottoman Empire inherited many of the strategic advantages that earlier powers had sought in the same region. c. 1721–1917 AD — The Russian Empire By the eighteenth century, the Russian Empire had expanded southward into many of the lands once controlled by the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, Khazars, Mongols, and Crimean Tatars. Russia became the latest great power to dominate the Eurasian crossroads, controlling the rivers, ports, and trade corridors that had attracted empires for more than two thousand years. The story of the Khazars is therefore part of a much larger story. For nearly 2,500 years, different peoples rose and fell across the same strategic landscape. Empires changed, languages changed, religions changed, but the geography remained the same. Whoever controlled the corridor between the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Eurasian steppe gained access to one of the most valuable crossroads in world history. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:8b641c8f-84e4-4949-be9c-04fb1ab2a0d5-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1000–1200 — Romani Migration Appears in Historical Records Migration from India gradually becomes visible in European records. 1020 — Habsburg Castle Built The castle from which the Habsburg family takes its name. 1054 — Great Schism Formal split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Shapes later divisions between Western Europe, Byzantium, Russia, and the Balkans. 1095–1291 — Crusades Series of military campaigns between European Christian powers and Muslim states. Major movement of people, trade, military orders, and wealth. 1096 — First Crusade Devastates Rhine Jewish Communities Jewish communities in Mainz, Worms, and Speyer suffer massacres and persecution during the First Crusade. 1204 — Fourth Crusade Sacks Constantinople Crusaders capture and sack Constantinople. Weakens the Byzantine Empire. Deepens the divide between Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic Christianity. 1215 — Magna Carta Often cited as a foundation of constitutional government and English legal traditions. 1219 — Nuremberg Receives Imperial Charter Nuremberg becomes an important Imperial Free City within the Holy Roman Empire. Develops into a major center of trade, administration, and political activity. 1241–1242 — Mongol Invasion of Europe Mongol armies devastate parts of Poland and Hungary before withdrawing. One of the largest military incursions into medieval Europe. 1273 — First Habsburg King of Germany Rudolf I becomes King of Germany. Marks the beginning of the Habsburg rise as a major European dynasty. 1278 — Habsburg Control of Austria Begins After the Battle of Marchfeld. Establishes the foundation of centuries of Habsburg rule in Austria. 1291 — Swiss Confederation Traditionally Founded Alliance of Alpine communities forms the basis of the future Swiss Confederation. Later becomes associated with resistance to Habsburg expansion. 1309–1377 — Avignon Papacy Popes reside in Avignon rather than Rome. Period sometimes referred to as the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy. 1347–1353 — Black Death Kills an estimated 30–50% of Europe's population. Labor shortages, social upheaval, and religious tensions reshape Europe. Jewish communities are falsely accused of poisoning wells, leading to massacres, expulsions, and persecution. The plague kills between one-third and one-half of Europe's population. German-speaking regions are devastated but recover unevenly. Jewish communities are accused of "poisoning wells," leading to pogroms, expulsions, and mass killings. Survivors migrate and cluster in safer regions, especially trade cities and tolerant areas. "These migrations helped reshape the geographic distribution of Ashkenazi Jewish communities, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe, where large populations later developed." The Plague Arrives  Between 1347 and 1352, the Black Death killed 30–50% of Europe. People had no understanding of germs, rats, fleas, or contagion. Medicine couldn't explain it. The Church couldn't stop it. Kings were powerless. When people don't understand a disaster, they look for someone to blame.   Why Jews Were Targeted  Europe already had a long history of antisemitism, and Jews lived in tight, separate communities due to segregation laws. This made them "different," which made them easy scapegoats. Specific Reasons Jews Were Blamed:   They washed more frequently (for religious reasons), which made their infection rates lower in some areas. To terrified Europeans, this looked suspicious.   Jewish communities used wells that Christians didn't use. This allowed the rumor "they poisoned the water" to spread.   Economic resentment, some Jews had roles in finance or trade; people in crisis targeted them.   Stories spread faster than facts. There was no science, no newspapers, no sanitation, and knowledge only fear.   The Well Poisoning Myth  A rumor began circulating in 1348: "The Jews have poisoned the wells to kill Christians." There was no evidence, but panic spreads faster than truth.  This led to mass arrests, torture-based "confessions," executions, entire communities being burned alive, destruction of property, expulsions from towns and regions. This was one of the largest waves of antisemitic violence in medieval history.   What Authorities Did  In a few places, leaders tried to stop the violence. The Pope (Clement VI) issued two official statements saying Jews were not responsible and begged people to stop killing them. Some kings tried to protect Jewish subjects. But in many cities, local rulers looked the other way or joined the attacks.    Why Understanding This Matters  The Black Death is one of history's clearest examples of how fear turns into false accusations, how minorities become scapegoats during crises, how dangerous misinformation becomes when people are desperate, and how societies invent explanations when they lack science. It shows how easily people will attack the wrong target when they face something they don't understand.   During the Black Death, terrified Europeans didn't know what caused the plague. Without science, they turned to myth. One of the worst false beliefs was that Jews had poisoned the wells. This rumor spread across the continent and led to massacres, expulsions, and the destruction of entire Jewish communities, even though there was zero evidence, and the real cause was fleas on rats. It remains one of the darkest chapters of medieval panic and scapegoating.   1356 — Golden Bull Issued by Emperor Charles IV. Defines the process for electing Holy Roman Emperors. One of the most important constitutional documents in Holy Roman Empire history. 1378–1417 — Western Schism Multiple rival popes claim authority. 1384–1477 — Burgundian Expansion into the Low Countries The Duchy of Burgundy absorbs much of the Low Countries, beginning their gradual separation from the German political sphere. 1400s 1400s–1500s — Early Prussian Territories Form The lands of the Teutonic Order gradually evolve into the political foundation of Prussia. German-speaking populations expand eastward into Central and Eastern Europe. 1417 — First Documented Romani Presence in Central Europe 1438 — Habsburg Era of the Holy Roman Empire Begins The Habsburg dynasty begins its long dominance of the imperial throne. 1450–1600 — Age of Exploration Portugal and Spain lead European maritime expansion. 1498 — Vasco da Gama reaches India. 1519–1522 — Magellan expedition circumnavigates the globe. 1450 — Johannes Gutenberg Introduces the Printing Press Movable-type printing transforms the spread of information. 1453 — Fall of Constantinople The Ottoman Empire conquers Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire. Trade routes between Europe and Asia increasingly pass through Ottoman-controlled territories. 1455 Onward — Mass Printing of the Bible The Gutenberg Bible helps accelerate literacy, religious debate, and the spread of ideas. 1469 — Ferdinand and Isabella Marry Unites the crowns of Castile and Aragon. Lays the foundation for a unified Spanish kingdom. 1477–1556 — Habsburg Control of Burgundy and the Low Countries The Habsburgs inherit the Burgundian Netherlands through marriage, creating a vast multinational dynasty stretching across Europe. 1492 — One of the Most Important Years in World History January 2, 1492 — Granada Falls The last Muslim kingdom in Spain is conquered. March 31, 1492 — Alhambra Decree Spain orders Jews to convert or leave. August 3, 1492 — Columbus Sails West August 1492 — Sephardic Jewish Exodus Begins Large numbers of Jews leave Spain for: Ottoman Empire North Africa Italy Portugal Netherlands October 12, 1492 — Columbus Reaches the Americas 1497 — Portugal Expels or Forcibly Converts Jews Additional waves of Sephardic migration spread across the Mediterranean and Europe. 1499 — Restrictions on Romani Populations Begin in Spain Authorities attempt to force settlement, labor control, and cultural assimilation. 1500s   1500s — Ottoman Jewish Commercial Networks Expand Major Jewish communities flourish in:  Constantinople  Salonica  Aleppo  Cairo  Baghdad  Trade, family, and religious networks connect communities across the Mediterranean, Middle East, Balkans, and North Africa.  1500–1502 — Forced Conversions of Muslims in Spain The Spanish Crown increases pressure on religious minorities to conform.  1516–1517 — Ottoman Conquest of the Arab World Ottoman forces take Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Jerusalem, and Cairo, creating one of the largest empires of the era.  1516 — Venetian Ghetto Established Often regarded as the first formal Jewish ghetto in Europe.  1517 — Protestant Reformation Begins Martin Luther publishes the Ninety-Five Theses. Religious unity in Western Europe fractures.  1519 — Charles V Becomes Holy Roman Emperor The Habsburg Empire reaches its greatest extent.  c. 1524 — First Recorded European Exploration of New York Harbor Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano sails into New York Harbor while exploring for France. 1609 — Henry Hudson Explores the Hudson River Henry Hudson explores the river that later bears his name while sailing for the Dutch. The voyage helps establish Dutch claims in the region. 1624 — New Netherland Established The Dutch establish a permanent colony in the Hudson River region. The colony becomes an important center for trade and commerce. 1625–1626 — New Amsterdam Founded The Dutch establish New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. The settlement becomes the center of Dutch North America. 1664 — English Seize New Amsterdam English forces take control of New Amsterdam without major fighting. The colony is renamed New York after the Duke of York. 1689–1691 — Leisler's Rebellion One of colonial America's earliest political uprisings occurs in New York. The rebellion reflects tensions over governance, trade, and loyalty to the English Crown. 1735 — John Peter Zenger Trial A landmark press-freedom case takes place in New York. The acquittal of printer John Peter Zenger becomes an important precedent for freedom of the press. 1785–1790 — New York Serves as U.S. Capital New York becomes the first capital under the U.S. Constitution. 1789 — George Washington Inaugurated George Washington takes the oath of office at Federal Hall. 1825 — Erie Canal Opens The Erie Canal links the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. New York becomes the dominant commercial gateway of the United States. 1835 — Great Fire of New York A massive fire destroys hundreds of buildings in lower Manhattan. The city is rebuilt and expands rapidly. 1845 — Second Great New York Fire Another devastating fire strikes the growing city. 1855–1924 — Mass Immigration Through New York Millions of immigrants arrive through New York Harbor. The city becomes one of the world's largest immigrant gateways. 1883 — Brooklyn Bridge Opens The bridge permanently links Manhattan and Brooklyn. 1892 — Ellis Island Opens Ellis Island becomes the primary federal immigration station. More than 12 million immigrants will pass through its doors. 1898 — Greater New York Created Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten Island are consolidated into modern New York City. 1525 — Duchy of Prussia Created  1526 — Battle of Mohács Ottoman victory reshapes Central Europe. The Habsburgs acquire claims to Hungary and Bohemia.  1534 — Ottoman Capture of Baghdad Baghdad becomes integrated into the Ottoman Empire and remains an important Jewish and commercial center.  1534 — Church of England Founded King Henry VIII establishes the Church of England and breaks with papal authority.  1556 — Habsburg Dynasty Divides Spanish and Austrian Habsburg branches formally separate.  1568–1648 — Dutch Revolt The northern Netherlands gradually break away from Habsburg rule. A defining event in the formation of the Dutch Republic.  Late 1500s — Amsterdam Emerges as a Global Trading Center Merchants, refugees, financiers, printers, and religious minorities converge in the city. Sephardic Jewish communities become increasingly prominent.  1580s–1600s — Brownist Movement Emerges in England Religious separatists reject the authority of the Church of England.  1588 — Defeat of the Spanish Armada England defeats the Spanish Armada. Marks a turning point in the balance of power between Spain and England.  1600 — British East India Company Founded Chartered by Queen Elizabeth I. Established to conduct trade with Asia. Becomes one of the most powerful commercial organizations in history. Its influence eventually extends across: India China The Middle East Africa The company plays a major role in the growth of the British Empire. 1602 — Dutch East India Company (VOC) Established One of the first large multinational corporations. Amsterdam develops into a major financial and trading center. Dutch commercial networks expand into: Asia Africa The Middle East The Americas The Dutch Republic becomes one of the leading economic powers of the seventeenth century. 1607 — Jamestown Founded  -First permanent English settlement in North America. 1609 — Amsterdam Exchange Bank Established The city strengthens its reputation as one of Europe's leading financial centers. Merchants from across Europe increasingly rely on Amsterdam for trade, finance, currency exchange, and commercial credit. The Dutch Republic becomes one of the most influential commercial powers of the seventeenth century. 1618–1648 — Thirty Years' War One of the most destructive conflicts in European history. Fought across much of Central Europe. Religious, dynastic, and political rivalries become intertwined. Large regions of the Holy Roman Empire are devastated. Population losses in some German territories reach catastrophic levels. The conflict further weakens centralized imperial authority and accelerates the rise of regional states 1619–1865 — Chattel Slavery Millions of Africans and their descendants are held as property in the American colonies and later the United States. Included: Forced labor Family separation Physical punishment Sale of children Legal denial of basic rights 1620 — Plymouth Colony  -Pilgrims arrive aboard the Mayflower. Mayflower Compact  -Early self-government document. 1648 — Peace of Westphalia End of the Thirty Years' War. Often viewed as the birth of the modern state system. Major reduction in Holy Roman Empire authority. 1675–1678 — King Philip's War One of the deadliest wars per capita in American history. Major turning point in Native–colonial relations. 1683 — Siege of Vienna  -Ottoman advance into Central Europe halted. 1688 — Glorious Revolution King James II is deposed. William III and Mary II assume the English throne. Parliament gains greater authority. Helps shape the future development of constitutional monarchy in Britain. 1694 — Bank of England Founded Established to help finance the English government. Becomes one of the most influential financial institutions in world history. Strengthens London's role as a global financial center. 1700s   The Sassoon family becomes increasingly visible in Baghdad records.   The family emerges as a respected and influential Jewish family within the city.   1700–1900– Ashkenazi Jewish population grows dramatically in Eastern Europe.   1700s–1800s – British Empire  -Child migration, indenture, and transportation programs moved children from Britain and Ireland to colonies throughout the British Empire. Many experienced exploitation, forced labor, harsh conditions, neglect, and abuse. Some documented cases involved sexual abuse and exploitation. 1736 — Bellevue Almshouse Established Originally established as a public almshouse in New York City.  The institution housed: the poor the sick the elderly the disabled people considered socially undesirable Over time Bellevue expanded medical services and eventually became one of the earliest American institutions to house and treat the mentally ill.  Originally established as an almshouse on the East River.  At the time it held the poor, the sick, the mentally ill, and anyone the city wanted removed from public view. Bellevue created the first dedicated psychiatric ward in America, long before the country built its network of asylums. This happened nearly a century before Ellis Island and long before mass immigration waves the U.S. built mental confinement systems for its own population from day one.  1770 — Industrial Revolution Begins Steam power, mechanization, factories. One of the most important transformations in human history. 1770 — Jefferson's first personal library destroyed in a fire at Shadwell, Virginia. He rebuilt it, creating the much larger collection that Congress later purchased in 1815 1770 — Fire destroys much of Thomas Jefferson's library at Shadwell. 1814 — The Library of Congress is destroyed during the Burning of Washington. 1815 — Congress purchases Jefferson's library to replace it. 1772, 1793, 1795 — Partitions of Poland  -Poland disappears from the map. Divided by: Prussia Austria Russia 1776 — American Revolution The Thirteen Colonies declare independence from Britain. The United States begins forming its own political institutions, laws, and systems of government 1787 — U.S. Constitution Ratified  -The operating framework of the experiment itself. 1789 — French Revolution The French monarchy enters crisis. Ideas of citizenship, nationalism, secular government, and mass political participation spread across Europe. Many modern state systems trace their origins to this period 1790 — First U.S. Census  -Beginning of systematic national population records 1791 — First Bank of the United States  -Hamilton's national bank. May 17, 1792 — Buttonwood Agreement  -Twenty-four New York brokers sign the Buttonwood Agreement, creating the foundation of the New York Stock Exchange and the modern American securities market. David Sassoon is born in Baghdad.   He is born into:   A centuries-old Jewish community.    An Ottoman trading world already connected across continents.    Networks that had been demonstrated during the Zevi movement more than a century earlier.  1796–1820s — First mass vaccination campaigns   Edward Jenner develops smallpox vaccination (1796) Britain, Prussia, France adopt compulsory/semi-compulsory vaccination   1798 — Exposition des produits de l'industrie française Paris, France Often considered the first large national industrial exposition. Established during the French Revolutionary period to showcase French industry and manufacturing. New state tools:   Health registries   Compliance enforcement   Medical–police logic       *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-4" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1800s 1803 — Marbury v. Madison Establishes judicial review. The U.S. Supreme Court gains the power to strike down laws deemed unconstitutional. 1803 — Louisiana Purchase The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France. Doubles the size of the United States. Opens vast areas for westward expansion. 1804 — Haitian Revolution Completed The slave uprising in Haiti successfully overthrows French colonial rule. First successful large-scale slave revolt to establish an independent nation. Massive impact on slavery, colonialism, and migration throughout the Americas. 1804–1806 — Lewis and Clark Expedition First major exploration of the Louisiana Purchase. Maps western territories and establishes relations with numerous Native American nations. Provides valuable geographic and scientific information about the continent 1808–1865 — Domestic Slave Trade After the international slave trade is banned, a massive internal slave trade develops within the United States. Over one million enslaved people are forcibly relocated, often separating families permanently. 1811 — Battle of Tippecanoe Conflict between U.S. forces and Native confederation forces led by Tecumseh's movement. Important precursor to the War of 1812. 1812 — Grimm's Fairy Tales Published Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm publish the first volume of Children's and Household Tales (Kinder- und Hausmärchen). Helps preserve German folklore. Becomes one of the most influential collections of fairy tales in history. 1812–1815 — War of 1812 Conflict between the United States and Great Britain. Fought over trade restrictions, maritime disputes, and frontier conflicts. Strengthens American national identity after the war. August 24, 1814 — Burning of Washington During the War of 1812, British forces: Burn the U.S. Capitol and White House Destroy numerous federal buildings Force evacuation of the capital Disrupt government operations and records 1815 — Congress of Vienna Congress of Vienna redraws the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. Habsburg influence is restored. A new European balance of power is established. The settlement shapes European politics until World War I. 1815–1816 — Volcanic Winter Mount Tambora Eruption erupts in present-day Indonesia. The following year becomes known as the "Year Without a Summer." Global temperatures decline approximately 0.4–0.7°C. Crop failures, famine, displacement, and food riots occur across multiple continents. 1816–1830 — First Modern Mass Migration Wave Rural populations move into growing cities throughout Europe. Emigration increases from German states, Switzerland, and Ireland. Settlement accelerates across North America. Industrialization and agricultural changes contribute to population movement. 1817–1828 — David Sassoon in Baghdad Administration David Sassoon serves in financial and administrative roles under the Ottoman governor of Baghdad. His position places him within the political and commercial structure of the Ottoman province. The experience helps him develop networks later used in Bombay. This period bridges the gap between his early life in Baghdad and his later commercial career in India. Pre-1820 — Limited Immigration Records Before the Steerage Act of 1820, most immigrants arrive without official passenger documentation. Many leave little trace of entry into North America. Genealogical research for this period is often difficult due to incomplete records. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:fc259647-f742-4d3d-ad0b-bad9a663d4b5-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:fc259647-f742-4d3d-ad0b-bad9a663d4b5-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-1" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-1" data-testid= "conversation-turn-32" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1820 — Steerage Act The United States begins requiring passenger manifests for ships arriving from overseas. Federal immigration documentation becomes more systematic. Many earlier immigrants remain difficult to trace because records were incomplete or nonexistent. 1820–1971 — British Influence in Gulf State Formation Britain gradually establishes control over foreign relations and defense in several Gulf states. 1820 — General Maritime Treaty Beginning of formal British influence in the Persian Gulf. 1821 — Mexico Gains Independence Spain loses control of New Spain following the Mexican War of Independence. Mexico inherits vast territories including present-day: California Texas Arizona New Mexico Nevada Utah Parts of Colorado and Wyoming 1820s–1840s — First Major State Asylums Large psychiatric hospitals begin appearing throughout the United States. Examples include institutions in: Worcester Utica Trenton Dorothea Dix campaigns for a nationwide asylum system. By the 1850s, nearly every state has at least one large mental institution. The asylum movement becomes a major component of nineteenth-century social reform. 1823 — Monroe Doctrine United States declares opposition to new European colonization in the Americas. Becomes a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy. Russian Oil Timeline 1823 One of the world's earliest paraffin-refining operations established in Baku. 1846 One of the world's first mechanically drilled oil wells was completed at Bibi-Heybat near Baku (then part of the Russian Empire). 1872 The Russian government auctioned oil-bearing lands around Baku to private investors. This marked the beginning of large-scale capitalist oil development in the region. 1873 Robert Nobel arrived in Baku and purchased refinery interests. The Nobel family's oil empire began taking shape. 1877–1879 Nobel Brothers Petroleum Company (Branobel) was established. Became one of the largest oil companies in the world. 1883 The Rothschild family entered the Russian oil business through the Caspian-Black Sea Oil Company. Baku-Batumi rail connections expanded export capacity. 1898–1901 Baku briefly produced more oil than the United States. Around 1901, Baku accounted for roughly half of global oil production. 1906 Baku-Batum pipeline completed, linking Caspian oil to the Black Sea. 1914–1917 Major oil interests included Nobel Brothers, Shell, Rothschild-linked companies, and Russian banking groups. Oil was one of the most important industries in the Russian Empire. 1917 The Russian Revolution. Bolsheviks moved toward state control and eventual nationalization of major oil assets. 1920s–1991 Soviet state oil industry. Oil production remained a major pillar of the Soviet economy. 1991–Present Collapse of the Soviet Union. Russian oil industry reorganized into state and private companies, including entities such as Rosneft and Lukoil. 1824 — Lowell Canal System One of the first major American industrial water-power systems. Helped launch the factory age in New England. 1825 — Erie Canal Opens Connects the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean via New York. Transforms trade, migration, and settlement patterns across the United States. 1829 — Metropolitan Police Established (London) Modern professional policing begins under Home Secretary Robert Peel. Many later police forces around the world adopt similar models. 1830 — Belgian Revolution Creates modern Belgium. Separates Belgium from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 1830 — Indian Removal Act Authorizes removal of Native American nations from southeastern United States. Leads to large-scale forced relocation and the Trail of Tears. 1831 — Nat Turner Rebellion One of the most significant slave uprisings in U.S. history. Triggers stricter slave laws across the South. 1832–1833 — Balloon Framing Introduced Balloon framing revolutionizes American home construction. Long continuous wall studs and mass-produced nails reduce costs and speed construction across the expanding United States. The method helps fuel rapid urban growth but is later criticized because wall cavities can act like chimneys during fires. 1835 — Great New York Fire Destroyed much of Lower Manhattan's business district. Financial records, insurance records, and commercial documents were lost. One of the worst urban fires in early U.S. history. 1837 — Telegraph Samuel Morse develops practical telegraph systems. Communication speeds increase dramatically across long distances. 1838–1839 — Trail of Tears Major U.S. population displacement event. Thousands of Cherokee and other Native Americans die during forced relocation. 1839–1842 — First Opium War Britain defeats Qing China after disputes over the opium trade. The resulting Treaty of Nanking opens Chinese ports to foreign commerce and transfers Hong Kong to British control. 1840s–1860s — Gynecological Experiments on Enslaved Women J. Marion Sims performs surgical experiments on enslaved Black women without modern standards of consent. Women frequently cited in historical accounts include: Anarcha Lucy Betsey Sims later becomes known as the "Father of Modern Gynecology." 1844 — First Practical Telegraph Message "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT" Sent between Washington and Baltimore. Marks the beginning of the modern telecommunications era. 1844 — American Psychiatric Association Founded as the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane. 1892 — Renamed the American Medico-Psychological Association. 1921 — Became the American Psychiatric Association. 1844 — Exposition of French Industrial Products Paris, France One of a series of increasingly large French industrial exhibitions that helped inspire later international fairs. 1845 — Manifest Destiny The belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America becomes a dominant political idea. Helps justify westward expansion, territorial acquisition, Native American displacement, and the Mexican-American War. Becomes one of the most influential concepts in nineteenth-century American history. 1845–1852 — Irish Famine Migration Over one million Irish immigrants arrive in the United States. Many arrive poor and undocumented. Names are frequently altered or inconsistently recorded, weakening long-term traceability. 1846–1848 — Mexican–American War The United States acquires large territories in the Southwest. Existing populations are absorbed with inconsistent land, legal, and identity records. 1848 — Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Ends the Mexican-American War. Massive territorial acquisition by the United States. 1848 — European Revolutions Revolutionary movements erupt across France, the German states, Austria, Hungary, and Italy. Many political refugees later emigrate to Britain and North America. The revolutions reveal growing tensions between monarchies, nationalism, and demands for political reform. 1848–1855 — California Gold Rush Triggers one of the largest migrations in American history. Hundreds of thousands move to California from the United States, Latin America, Europe, and Asia. 1851 — The Great Exhibition (London) First major world's fair. Showcases industrial, technological, and imperial power of the Victorian era. 1853 — Perpetual Maritime Truce Expands British oversight of regional maritime affairs in the Persian Gulf. 1854–1929 — Orphan Train Movement Approximately 200,000 children relocated from cities to rural families. Many were not orphans but were separated due to poverty or disease. Child removal becomes an institutional solution to social problems. 1856 — Nikola Tesla Born Nikola Tesla born in Smiljan, then part of the Austrian Empire (later Austro-Hungarian Empire), now in Croatia. 1858 — British Crown Takes Direct Control of India End of East India Company rule. India becomes governed directly by the British Crown 1859 — First Commercial Oil Well Edwin Drake drills the first successful commercial oil well in Titusville, Pennsylvania. Often considered the beginning of the modern petroleum industry. 1861–1865 — American Civil War Railroads, telegraph systems, and mass conscription transform warfare. Approximately 620,000 deaths. Permanent expansion of federal power, records systems, veterans' institutions, asylums, and poorhouses. 1862 — Homestead Act One of the most important land redistribution programs in U.S. history. Encourages western settlement. 1864 — Circassian Genocide Final Circassian resistance crushed near Sochi. Approximately 90% expelled to the Ottoman Empire. One of the largest ethnic expulsions of the nineteenth century April 14–15, 1865 — Assassination of Abraham Lincoln President Abraham Lincoln is shot by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., and dies the following morning. The first assassination of a U.S. president, it occurs just days after the end of major Civil War fighting and profoundly influences the course of Reconstruction and post-war American history. 1865–1877 — Black Codes Southern states enact laws restricting the freedom of formerly enslaved people. Limitations include: Employment Movement Property rights Civil rights 1866–1867 — Dynamite Developed and Patented Alfred Nobel develops a practical method of stabilizing nitroglycerin. 1867 — Dynamite patented in the United Kingdom 1866–1940s — Convict Leasing Southern states lease prisoners to private companies. Black Americans are disproportionately affected. Conditions are often described by historians as harsher than slavery. 1867 — Alaska Purchase Major territorial expansion of the United States. Purchased from Russia. 1869 — First Transcontinental Railroad Completed Links eastern and western United States by rail. Accelerates migration, commerce, communication, and settlement. 1869–1880s — Railroads Transform Society Railroads dramatically increase movement of: People Mail Goods Newspapers Government records Creating the first truly national transportation network in U.S. history. The United States becomes increasingly connected by transportation and communication networks. Cities such as Chicago emerge as major national transportation hubs 1870s–1900 — Political Corruption and Machine Politics Political machines control many major cities. Most famous: Tammany Hall (New York) Led by William M. Tweed ("Boss Tweed"). Included: Bribery Election fraud Kickbacks Government contract theft 1870 — Standard Oil Founded John D. Rockefeller founds Standard Oil in Ohio. Becomes the dominant oil company in the United States. 1870– 15th Amendment Voting rights. Global telegraph networks expand rapidly. Communication that once required weeks or months can increasingly move across continents in hours or days. Governments, businesses, banks, newspapers, and commercial networks become more interconnected than ever before. International news agencies expand their reach. Events occurring on one continent can increasingly be reported on another within days rather than weeks. Governments, banks, newspapers, and commercial firms become dependent on rapid information flow. During the 1870s–1880s, Orphan Train placements scaled into:   Ohio    Indiana    Illinois    Missouri    Kansas    Nebraska    …and further west over time.    1870 — First U.S. Census to Record Formerly Enslaved People by Name One of the most important genealogy milestones in American history. Prior censuses generally listed enslaved people only as numbers under slaveholders. For millions of Black Americans, 1870 is the first federal record identifying ancestors by name.   October 8, 1871. One night, multiple catastrophic fires ignited simultaneously across the Great Lakes region. The Great Chicago Fire destroyed 2,100 acres, leveled 17,400 buildings, and left 70,000 people homeless. That same night, 200 miles north, the Peshtigo fire in Wisconsin consumed 1.2 million acres and took between 1,500 and 2,500 lives, making it the single most devastating wildfire in recorded American history.   Simultaneously, fires destroyed Holland, Michigan; Manistee, Michigan; and Port Huron, Michigan. Thirty-seven individual fire areas across three states, all on the same night. The official explanation is drought conditions and careless land-clearing practices that happened to ignite at the same time across hundreds of miles.   1871 – Great Fire of Chicago  -A major urban disaster that destroys homes, businesses, and records.    Vital Records (Birth, Death, Marriage) Many birth and death records prior to 1871 were lost   Early marriage records partially destroyed    Important note:  Illinois did not have a strong statewide vital records system yet, so many records existed only locally—and were wiped out.    City Government Records    Tax records   Licensing records   Permits and municipal documents    Tracking residency, business ownership, and civic identity became much harder.    What the 1871 Fire Actually Did    Burned the central business district where many records were stored (courts, city offices, newspapers, banks)   Destroyed single-copy records—there were rarely backups or statewide duplicates   Forced rapid rebuilding and re-documentation (people re-proved ownership, remarried in records, refiled claims)    Church Records    Baptismal, marriage, and burial records from multiple churches destroyed. These were often the only records of:   Immigrants   Children   Poor families     Newspaper Archives    Offices of major newspapers burned (e.g., Chicago Tribune)   Most back issues and archives destroyed    Loss of:    Obituaries   Public notices   Community records     Business and Personal Records    Bank records   Employment records   Private ledgers and correspondence    For many individuals, this erased:    Work history   Financial identity   Proof of residence   Scale of Destruction    ~3.3 square miles destroyed   ~17,000 buildings lost   ~100,000 people left homeless   Most records located in the central business district were completely wiped out    What Survived (Partially)    Some records stored outside the burn zone   State or federal duplicates (rare)   Reconstructed records created after the fire   The Chicago fire didn't just destroy buildings—it erased local identity infrastructure:    No centralized backups   No standardized duplication   Heavy reliance on single-location record storage    For many families in Chicago, pre-1871 documentation is incomplete or permanently lost    City Government Records    Tax records   Licensing records   Permits and municipal documents    Impact:  Tracking residency, business ownership, and civic identity became much harder.      1871 – Peshtigo Fire (Wisconsin)   Occurred the same night as the Chicago fire.   Deadliest wildfire in U.S. history, with roughly 1,200 or more deaths.   Entire communities are wiped out.   Local records are completely destroyed.   1872 — Crédit Mobilier Scandal One of the largest corruption scandals in U.S. history. Railroad insiders create a construction company to overcharge the federal government. Members of Congress receive stock and payments. Exposes widespread political corruption. 1872 – Great Boston Fire   Destroyed Boston's commercial district.   Financial, legal, and business records were lost.   Major insurance and property documentation was affected.   1872–1890 Chicago rebuilds at extraordinary speed. Railroads, meatpacking, manufacturing, grain trading, and finance expand rapidly. The city becomes one of the fastest-growing urban centers in the world. Millions of immigrants pass through or settle in the region during the following decades 1873 — Panic of 1873 Major global financial crisis. Triggers a prolonged economic depression in the United States and Europe. Bank failures, railroad collapses, unemployment, and migration increase. 1873–1900 — Railroad Monopolies and Land Scandals Railroads receive enormous federal land grants. Accusations include: Bribery Price fixing Political influence Fraudulent land deals Railroads become some of the most powerful corporations in the country. 1874 – Second Chicago Fire   Smaller than the 1871 fire but still significant.   Re-damaged rebuilding areas and records.  1874 — Freedman's Bank Records Preserved The records of the Freedman's Savings Bank contain family information for tens of thousands of formerly enslaved people. Often considered one of the richest genealogical sources for African American families. 1875 to ~1890  During this period:   The Children's Aid Society was running regular outbound placements The New York Foundling Hospital expanded operations in parallel Western/Midwestern demand for child labor + adoption was strong     Frequency of trains   Trains were frequent but not strictly monthly on a fixed calendar Some routes saw multiple trips per month during heavy periods Other times there were gaps depending on:    funding    demand from receiving towns    seasonal conditions (winter slowed movement)    1876 —Telephone  -Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone 1876 — Battle of Little Bighorn Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho forces defeat U.S. Army troops under George Armstrong Custer. One of the most famous battles of the American Indian Wars. 1877–1900 — Labor Violence Major conflicts between industrial workers and corporations. Examples: 1877 — Great Railroad Strike 1892 — Homestead Strike 1894 — Pullman Strike Private security forces, state militias, and federal troops are used against workers 1877–1965 — Jim Crow Era Legal segregation spreads throughout the South. Separate systems develop for: Schools Transportation Housing Voting Public accommodations 1878 — First Motion Picture Experiment  -Eadweard Muybridge creates The Horse in Motion, demonstrating sequential photographs that produce the illusion of movement 1879 — Thomas Edison Demonstrates Practical Incandescent Lighting Thomas Edison demonstrates a commercially practical incandescent lamp. Electric lighting begins transforming cities and industry 1880s–1900 — Child Labor Millions of children work in: Mines Factories Textile mills Agriculture Often under dangerous conditions. One of the most significant labor issues of the era. 1880s–1960s — Lynching Era Thousands of African Americans are murdered by mobs. Lynchings are often public events. Many perpetrators are never prosecuted. 1880s–1900 — Company Towns and Industrial Exploitation Large corporations control: Housing Stores Employment Workers often paid in company scrip rather than cash. Creates economic dependence on employers. 1880–1924– Large-scale Ashkenazi immigration to the United States.   Jewish communities in the Rhine region of Germany become known as Ashkenazim, taking their name from the biblical figure Ashkenaz. These communities later become the ancestors of most Eastern European and American Ashkenazi Jews.  Many people assume "Ashkenazi" means Poland or Russia, when historically the term originally pointed to the German-speaking lands of the medieval Holy Roman Empire.  1880's — Thomas Alva Edison developed electrical power systems based on direct current (DC) technologies. Chicago emerges as one of the nation's largest railroad centers. The city becomes a major hub for: Agriculture Meatpacking Manufacturing Immigration Financial activity Its influence increasingly extends far beyond the Midwest. 1880s – 1900: German Consolidation   Kaiser Wilhelm II (Germany) — grandson of Queen Victoria. → Britain and Germany now ruled by first cousins. Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Austria) marries Sophie Chotek, 1900. → Habsburg succession becomes fragile, fueling instability. Industrial wealth rises; royal finance shifts to London banks (Rothschild, Baring, Hambro).  → Economic gravity tilts westward.   Modern communications accelerate globalization:  Railroads  Steamships  Telegraphs  International banking  Jewish communities are documented throughout:  Russia  Germany  Austria-Hungary  Britain  France  Ottoman Empire  United States  Mass immigration to the United States accelerates. Large numbers of newcomers arrive from: Germany Russia Austria-Hungary Italy Eastern Europe The Ottoman Empire, Chicago, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and other industrial cities expand rapidly. Many immigrant families appear in American records for the first time during this period. 1880s and 1890s–  Tesla worked with radio-frequency electromagnetic waves. Despite the claims made by Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937), it was actually Tesla who did much of the most basic pioneering work in radio frequency technology By 1880:  Dozens of state asylums already existed.  Institutional populations were exploding.  The logic of confinement was routine government policy.  Eugenics researchers had easy access to institutionalized populations.  So when immigration later surged, the U.S. didn't need to create an institutional system — it simply expanded the one it already had.  1880s–1900s — Reclamation Movement  -Growing federal interest in irrigating the American West 1881 — American Red Cross Founded Clara Barton establishes the American Red Cross. Disaster relief becomes increasingly organized 1882 — Standard Oil Trust Created Standard Oil consolidates dozens of companies into a single trust. 1882 to 1892 – The decade immediately following those fires, was the peak decade of orphan train placements. The fires created massive displacement. Entire communities vanished. Local records burned. Population records, birth certificates, property deeds, church registries, all consumed. And into that void, children with no traceable origins flooded the system by the thousands. 1882 — Chinese Exclusion Act  -First major federal law restricting immigration by ethnicity. 1882 — First modern electric power station   Pearl Street Station, NYC (Edison)   Centralized electricity; night becomes productive   Tesla was employed with Continental Edison in Paris, France 1882–1903 — First Aliyah Large numbers of Jews from the Russian Empire and Eastern Europe migrate to Ottoman Palestine. Driven by pogroms, discrimination, and emerging Zionist movements. 1883 — Pendleton Civil Service Act  -Creates the modern professional federal bureaucracy. 1883 — Eugenics Coined  -Francis Galton introduces the term. United States  1904 — The Eugenics Record Office movement begins taking shape through research programs.   1910 — Eugenics Record Office opens in New York.   1907 — Indiana passes the world's first compulsory sterilization law.   1924 — Immigration Act restricts immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.   1927 — Buck v. Bell upholds forced sterilization laws. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. writes the decision.   1930s — Eugenics reaches peak influence in the United States.   1945 — After the defeat of Nazi Germany, public support rapidly declines.   1960s–1970s — Most state sterilization programs end.   1979 — Last known state-sanctioned sterilization program formally closes in many historical accounts (North Carolina's program continued into the 1970s) 1884–1885 — Berlin Conference  -European powers divide Africa. Important because: Colonial empires expand dramatically. Connects to migration and later world wars. 1884–  Tesla migrated to New York. He continued his employment with Edison's organization. Tesla was an electrical engineering genius, and inventor. Tesla and Edison became fierce competitors. He continued his employment with Edison's organization. Tesla was an electrical engineering genius, and inventor. Tesla and Edison became fierce competitors. 1885–  George Westinghouse, head of Westinghouse Electric Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, bought the patent rights to Tesla's polyphase system of alternating current dynamos, transformers, and motors. By the turn of the century, the State of New York electrical power system was based on Tesla's AC 1885 — First Successful Modern Skyscraper The Home Insurance Building in Chicago is completed. Often considered the world's first skyscraper. Steel-frame construction changes urban architecture 1886– Tesla opened his own laboratory in New York. Tesla invented and perfected the alternating current (AC) electrical system. Tesla acquired 45 U.S. patents in electrical alternating currents. Tesla invented the incandescent bulb, which Edison took full credit for 1886 — Statue of Liberty Dedicated -Haymarket Affair  -Major labor conflict 1886 — Coca-Cola Introduced The Coca-Cola Company origins begin in Atlanta. Becomes one of the world's most recognized consumer brands 1888 — Jack the Ripper Murders Series of murders in London's Whitechapel district. One of history's most famous unsolved criminal cases. 1889 — Oklahoma Land Run 1889 – Seattle Great Fire   Entire downtown destroyed.   Municipal and business records lost.   The city was rebuilt almost entirely from scratch 1890 — Sherman Antitrust Act First major U.S. law targeting monopolies and trusts. Later used against Standard Oil. 1890 – U.S. Census (Critical Link)   The most detailed census of its time, capturing the post-Civil War generation and linking earlier and later identities.    Most of the 1890 U.S. Census was destroyed in a 1921 fire at the Commerce Department building in Washington, D.C. The loss removed a crucial bridge between: The Civil War generation The great immigration era The early twentieth century For genealogists and historians, it remains one of the largest record losses in American history.   The 1890 census was the most detailed population survey the United States had ever conducted. For the first time, each family received its own dedicated form. It collected information on immigration status, naturalization, English-language proficiency, home ownership, race, household composition, and the relationship of every individual to the head of household. It captured a nation of 63 million people during the exact peak of the orphan train era. The highest placement rates occurred between 1882 and 1892. Nearly half of all children sent to Minnesota alone arrived in that single decade. The 1890 census would have documented precisely where these children were living, who they were living with, and whether their stated origins matched any verifiable immigration record. Most surviving 1890 census records are destroyed in a fire at the Commerce Department Building in Washington.  The loss removes one of the most important links between: The Civil War era The great immigration period The twentieth century The destruction becomes one of the greatest record losses in American history. After the peak Orphan Trains  (1890s–1920s)   Still active, but:    more regulated    more scrutiny    gradual decline in large group transports   1890 — Wounded Knee Massacre U.S. troops kill hundreds of Lakota men, women, and children. Often viewed as the symbolic end of the American Indian Wars 1890 — Sherman Antitrust Act First major federal law aimed at limiting monopolies and trusts. Foundation of later antitrust enforcement. 1890s — Lynching Era Intensifies Mob violence against African Americans becomes widespread. Thousands are killed. Perpetrators are rarely prosecuted. 1892 — Ellis Island Opens 1892 — Homestead Strike  -Labor versus industrial capital 1892–1900 — Robber Baron Era Industrial fortunes accumulate around figures such as: John D. Rockefeller Andrew Carnegie J. P. Morgan Critics accuse corporations of: Monopoly practices Labor exploitation Political influence Market manipulation 1893 — Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom A group of American and European businessmen, supported by U.S. interests in Hawaii, overthrow the government of Queen Liliʻuokalani. U.S. Minister John Stevens and U.S. Marines play a controversial role during the crisis. The monarchy is removed from power. 1893 — Thermite Hans Goldschmidt develops the thermite process.   1895 — Goldschmidt patents the thermite reaction.   1898 — Commercial use begins for welding railroad rails and industrial metalwork.   1894 — Pullman Strike Major national railroad labor conflict. Federal intervention expands government's role in labor disputes. 1895— X-rays Discovered  -By Wilhelm Röntgen 1895 — First Commercial Movie Screening  -The Lumière brothers present the first paid public motion-picture exhibition in Paris, marking the birth of the modern film industry Between 1896 and 1943  -Premature infants were displayed in glass incubators as public attractions. A man named Martin Cooney, who may not have been a real doctor, who changed his name at least once, who lied about his birthplace, operated what he called the Infantorium at Coney Island's Luna Park and at World's Fairs in Omaha, Buffalo, Chicago, and New York. Signs outside read: Babies in Incubators.   Visitors paid 25 cents to view rows of tiny infants behind glass. Cooney claimed to have treated over 6,500 premature babies. The names of the infants were kept anonymous. Hospitals at the time refused to treat premature babies at all, calling them weaklings unfit to survive. Eugenics exhibits ran at the same fairs where Cooney displayed his incubators.   Where did thousands of anonymous premature infants come from? Who were their parents? Why was there such an endless supply of them across decades of exhibitions? And why does nobody ask?   1896 — Klondike Gold Rush Major migration into Alaska and the Yukon. One of the largest gold rushes in North American history 1896 — Plessy v. Ferguson The U.S. Supreme Court upholds racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." Provides legal support for Jim Crow laws. 1897— the War Department owned Plum Island (then called Fort Terry) 1897 — Oil Discovered on Osage Reservation Oil is discovered beneath lands belonging to the Osage Nation in Oklahoma. The Osage had negotiated ownership of mineral rights when their reservation was established. As oil production expanded, many Osage became extraordinarily wealthy. By the early 1920s, some Osage families were among the richest people per capita in the world. 1898— Spanish-American War  -Marks emergence of the U.S. as a global empire. 1898–1934 — Banana Wars  -A series of U.S. military interventions, occupations, and political actions in: Cuba Panama Nicaragua Haiti Dominican Republic Honduras Mexico The interventions were often justified as protecting American interests, maintaining regional stability, safeguarding the Panama Canal, and protecting U.S. businesses such as the United Fruit Company. 1898 — Annexation of Hawaii 1899–1902 — Second Boer War British Empire fights Boer republics in South Africa. Early use of concentration camps attracts international criticism 1900s September 8, 1900 — Galveston Hurricane The deadliest natural disaster in United States history. A powerful hurricane strikes Galveston, Texas. Results: Estimated 6,000–8,000 deaths Thousands of homes destroyed Much of the city devastated In the aftermath: Galveston constructs a massive seawall Large portions of the city are physically raised Economic and commercial growth increasingly shifts toward Houston The disaster permanently alters the future development of Texas. 1901 — Assassination of President McKinley President William McKinley is assassinated. Vice President Theodore Roosevelt becomes president. The Progressive Era accelerates. July 16, 1902 — Pilgrims Society Founded The Pilgrims Society is founded in London. Created to promote Anglo-American relations. Membership includes: Political leaders Diplomats Financiers Industrialists Military officers Aristocratic families 1902 — A Trip to the Moon A Trip to the Moon becomes one of the first narrative science-fiction films. An early milestone in cinematic storytelling. 1902 — Reclamation Act Creates the federal reclamation program. Leads to: Large-scale dam construction Irrigation projects Expansion of agriculture across the American West 1903 — New York Pilgrims Society Established The New York branch of the Pilgrims Society is established. Strengthens institutional links between influential American and British elites. 1903 — Panama Canal Project Begins Construction efforts begin on what becomes one of the most important engineering projects in history. The canal ultimately transforms: Global shipping Military logistics International trade December 17, 1903 — Wright Brothers Flight Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright achieve the first successful powered flight. Marks the beginning of modern aviation. 1904–1914 — Second Aliyah Additional migration from Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe. Many future political and institutional leaders arrive during this period. 1904 — Russo-Japanese War Japan defeats Russia. First major modern victory of an Asian power over a European empire. Shocks the world and alters global perceptions of military power. 1904 — Baltimore Great Fire More than 1,500 buildings destroyed. Losses include: Business records Legal records Municipal records The disaster highlights the lack of standardized firefighting systems between American cities. 1905 — Einstein's Annus Mirabilis Albert Einstein publishes groundbreaking papers on: Special relativity Brownian motion The photoelectric effect Transforms modern physics. 1905 — Russian Revolution Mass protests and unrest erupt across the Russian Empire. The Tsar is forced to implement limited reforms. Serves as a precursor to the revolutions of 1917 1906 — Osage Allotment Act Surface land is divided among tribal members. However, mineral rights remain collectively owned by the Osage Nation. Each enrolled tribal member receives a "headright" share in oil revenues. 1906–1921 — Greenwood ("Black Wall Street") The Greenwood District of Tulsa, Oklahoma develops into one of the most successful Black business communities in the United States. Becomes known as "Black Wall Street." 1906 — Naturalization Act Standardizes citizenship and immigration records. Represents an important milestone in federal identity documentation. April 18, 1906 — San Francisco Earthquake and Fire One of the most destructive disasters in American history. Results: Roughly 80% of the city destroyed Massive fires follow the earthquake Property records lost Community records lost Legal records lost Business records lost Many family and immigration histories become difficult to reconstruct. 1906–1910 — Expansion of Vital Records Systems States increasingly adopt standardized systems for: Birth certificates Death certificates Marriage records Public health reporting Identity becomes increasingly tied to official documentation rather than local community knowledge. 1907 — Panic of 1907 Major banking panic and financial crisis. Bank failures spread across the country. The crisis becomes a direct precursor to creation of the Federal Reserve System. 1907 — First Compulsory Sterilization Law Indiana becomes the first jurisdiction in the world to enact a compulsory sterilization law. The policy later influences eugenics legislation elsewhere in the United States and abroad. 1908 — Bureau of Investigation Created The U.S. Department of Justice creates the Bureau of Investigation. The agency later becomes the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). June 30, 1908  Some believe that "The Tunguska Event", the  massive explosion in Siberia was the result of Tesla testing the power of his high-power radio frequency transmitter. The force of the blast at Tunguska has been estimated to have been equivalent to 10-15 megatons of TNT. The blast flattened 500,000 acres of pine forest, and was heard over a radius of 620 miles.  Nevertheless, Tesla touted the destructive power of electromagnetic warfare.  On April 21, 1908, days before the great Tunguska Event, Tesla wrote a letter to the N.Y. Times, which stated: When I spoke of future warfare I meant that it should be conducted by direct application of electrical waves without the use of aerial engines or other implements of destruction…This is not a dream. Even now wireless power plants could be constructed by which any region of the globe might be rendered uninhabitable without subjecting the population of other parts to serious danger or inconvenience. 1908 — Hetch Hetchy Water Project Approved The city of San Francisco seeks access to water from the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park following the 1906 earthquake and fire. A major national debate develops between conservationists and preservationists. 1908 — Bureau of Investigation Created The Bureau of Investigation is formed by the Department of Justice. Later becomes the FBI. 1908 — Ford Model T Introduced Ford Model T introduced by Ford Motor Company. Mass production helps make automobiles affordable to ordinary Americans. Transforms transportation and urban development. 1908–1918 — Young Turk Government The Young Turks gain power within the Ottoman Empire. Initially promising reform and constitutional government, elements of the movement become increasingly nationalist. Policies increasingly target non-Turkish minorities 1909 — NAACP Founded The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is established. Becomes one of the most influential civil-rights organizations in American history. 1910s–1920s — Osage Oil Wealth Massive oil production generates enormous royalty payments. Many Osage families receive substantial annual income from oil leases. The wealth attracts: Bankers Lawyers Businessmen Guardians Speculators 1910 — Eugenics Record Office The Eugenics Record Office opens in Cold Spring Harbor, New York. The organization becomes a major center for eugenics research in the United States. Its work later influences: Immigration policy Sterilization laws Institutional policies Public health programs 1910 — Boy Scouts of America Founded The Boy Scouts of America is founded. The organization grows into one of the largest youth organizations in the United States. 1911 — Standard Oil Broken Up The U.S. Supreme Court orders the breakup of Standard Oil. Creates companies that later become: Exxon Mobil Chevron Amoco Conoco March 25, 1911 — Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire Fire destroys the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in New York City. 146 workers die, many of them young immigrant women. The disaster leads to major reforms involving: Workplace safety Fire codes Building regulations Labor protections 1911 — Roosevelt Dam Completed One of the first major federal reclamation dams completed under the Reclamation Act. Helps transform agriculture in Arizona and the American Southwest. 1911 — New York State Library Fire A major fire destroys large portions of the New York State Library and State Capitol collections. Massive archival losses include: Government records Historical manuscripts Genealogical materials Rare books One of the largest archival losses in American history. April 10–15, 1912 — Titanic Disaster The British passenger liner RMS Titanic strikes an iceberg during its maiden voyage and sinks in the North Atlantic. Results: More than 1,500 deaths One of the deadliest maritime disasters in history Major international shipping safety reforms Occurs during the peak era of transatlantic migration. 1913 — Federal Reserve Created The Federal Reserve System is established. Creates a central banking system for the United States. One of the most significant financial events in American history. The Federal Reserve becomes a central institution in: Banking Monetary policy Financial stability Economic management 1913 — Income Tax Authorized The 16th Amendment is ratified. Allows the federal government to collect income taxes directly. Significantly expands federal revenue capacity. 1913 — Raker Act (Hetch Hetchy) Congress authorizes construction of a dam in Hetch Hetchy Valley inside Yosemite National Park. The decision follows years of debate between preservationists led by John Muir and supporters of urban water development. The project ultimately supplies water and hydroelectric power to San Francisco and becomes one of the most significant environmental controversies in American history. One of the most controversial environmental decisions in U.S. history. The debate pits: John Muir and preservationists Supporters of urban water development  against one another.   1913–1951 — Dr. Leo Stanley's Prison Experiments At San Quentin State Prison, prison surgeon Leo Leonidas Stanley conducted numerous experimental procedures on inmates. Experiments included: Sterilization procedures Glandular and endocrine experiments Testicle transplants from executed prisoners Testicle transplants using animal tissue from goats, rams, and boars Stanley believed criminal behavior could be influenced by hormones and gland function. 1920s–1970s — Eugenic Sterilization Programs Thousands of people in prisons, psychiatric institutions, and state facilities underwent involuntary sterilization in the United States. Victims included: Prisoners Institutionalized patients Individuals labeled "feebleminded" Juveniles in state custody Many procedures targeted reproductive capacity rather than medical treatment. The U.S. Supreme Court decision in the Buck v. Bell upheld compulsory sterilization laws, helping expand these programs. 1932–1972 — Tuskegee Syphilis Study The U.S. Public Health Service conducted a study in Macon County, Alabama, examining the long-term effects of untreated syphilis in Black male sharecroppers. The study involved approximately 600 men: 399 with syphilis 201 without syphilis as controls Participants were not fully informed of their diagnosis and were told they were receiving medical care. Even after penicillin became the standard treatment for syphilis in the 1940s, researchers continued observing many participants rather than providing treatment. The consequences extended beyond the original subjects and included: Wives who contracted syphilis Children born with congenital syphilis The study continued until public exposure in 1972. In 1997, Bill Clinton issued a formal apology on behalf of the U.S. government. 1940s–1960s — Radiation Fertility Research During the Atomic Age Following World War II, government-funded researchers studied the effects of radiation exposure on fertility and reproduction. Research topics included: Sterility thresholds Genetic damage Reproductive effects of ionizing radiation Long-term consequences of nuclear exposure These studies contributed to Cold War radiation standards and risk models. 1960s–1970s — Holmesburg Prison Experiments At Holmesburg Prison in Philadelphia, inmates participated in a wide range of medical and pharmaceutical experiments. Some studies involved: Hormonal substances Reproductive effects Chemical exposures with possible fertility consequences The prison later became one of the most controversial sites of human experimentation in the United States. 1963–1973 — Testicular Radiation Experiments on Prisoners Researchers at the University of Washington conducted federally funded radiation experiments on inmates in Washington and Oregon prisons. Approximately 130 prisoners participated. The studies involved: Direct radiation exposure to the testicles Fertility studies Measurement of reproductive damage from ionizing radiation Participants later argued they were not adequately informed of the risks. In 2000, former subjects reached a settlement with the university. Combined Timeline 1913–1951 — Leo Stanley's testicle transplant experiments at San Quentin 1920s–1970s — Eugenic sterilization programs 1932–1972 — Tuskegee Syphilis Study 1940s–1960s — Radiation fertility research during the Atomic Age 1960s–1970s — Holmesburg Prison experiments 1963–1973 — Washington/Oregon prisoner testicular radiation experiments 1915–1917 — Armenian Genocide Ottoman authorities carry out mass deportations and killings of Armenians. Consequences include: Large-scale deaths Forced marches Property confiscations Destruction of communities Scholars generally estimate deaths ranging from several hundred thousand to over one million. The genocide becomes one of the defining human-rights catastrophes of the twentieth century.  The Young Turks' Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire   Expropriated Armenian wealth and property   Attempted to erase Armenian cultural presence in Anatolia   Continued persecutions even after the initial wave of killings in 1915-1916  The Young Turks' role in the Armenian Genocide was comprehensive and deliberate, transforming Ottoman policy towards Armenians from discrimination to outright extermination. Their actions resulted in the deaths of at least 664,000 and possibly as many as 1.2 million Armenians, marking one of the most egregious violations of human rights in the 20th century.  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-8" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Pre-1914 — Armenian Conditions in the Ottoman Empire Armenians remain legally classified under the Ottoman millet system. Earlier violence includes: Hamidian Massacres (1894–1896) Armenian self-defense groups emerge in some regions. Elements within Ottoman leadership increasingly portray Armenians as a security concern. June 28, 1914 — Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated in Sarajevo. The event triggers a chain reaction of alliances and mobilizations. Often regarded as the immediate spark of World War I. 1914–1918 — World War I The first large-scale industrialized global war. Characteristics include: Mass conscription Trench warfare Machine guns Artillery bombardment Chemical weapons Total societal mobilization Approximately 16–20 million deaths occur worldwide. The conflict reshapes the twentieth century. 1915 — Lusitania Sinking German submarine U-20 sinks RMS Lusitania. Nearly 1,200 people die. The incident increases anti-German sentiment in the United States. German submarine sinks Lusitania – 1915   On the afternoon of May 7, 1915, the British ocean liner Lusitania is torpedoed without warning by a German submarine off the south coast of Ireland. Within 20 minutes, the vessel sank into the Celtic Sea. Of 1,959 passengers and crew, 1,198 people were drowned, including 128 Americans. The attack aroused considerable indignation in the United States, but Germany defended the action, noting that it had issued warnings of its intent to attack all ships, neutral or otherwise, that entered the war zone around Britain. When World War I erupted in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson pledged neutrality for the United States, a position that the vast majority of Americans favored. Britain, however, was one of America's closest trading partners, and tension soon arose between the United States and Germany over the latter's attempted quarantine of the British isles. Several U.S. ships traveling to Britain were damaged or sunk by German mines, and in February 1915 Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare in the waters around Britain. In early May 1915, several New York newspapers published a warning by the German embassy in Washington that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones did so at their own risk. The announcement was placed on the same page as an advertisement of the imminent sailing of the Lusitania liner from New York back to Liverpool. The sinkings of merchant ships off the south coast of Ireland prompted the British Admiralty to warn the Lusitania to avoid the area or take simple evasive action, such as zigzagging to confuse U-boats plotting the vessel's course. The captain of the Lusitania ignored these recommendations, and at 2:12 p.m. on May 7 the 32,000-ton ship was hit by an exploding torpedo on its starboard side. The torpedo blast was followed by a larger explosion, probably of the ship's boilers, and the ship sunk in 20 minutes. It was revealed that the Lusitania was carrying about 173 tons of war munitions for Britain, which the Germans cited as further justification for the attack. The United States eventually sent three notes to Berlin protesting the action, and Germany apologized and pledged to end unrestricted submarine warfare. In November, however, a U-boat sunk an Italian liner without warning, killing 272 people, including 27 Americans. Public opinion in the United States began to turn irrevocably against Germany. On January 31, 1917, Germany, determined to win its war of attrition against the Allies, announced that it would resume unrestricted warfare in war-zone waters. Three days later, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Germany, and just hours after that the American liner Housatonic was sunk by a German U-boat. On February 22, Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the United States ready for war. In late March, Germany sunk four more U.S. merchant ships, and on April 2 President Wilson appeared before Congress and called for a declaration of war against Germany. On April 4, the Senate voted to declare war against Germany, and two days later the House of Representatives endorsed the declaration. With that, America entered World War I. The RMS Lusitania had recently departed New York when it was fatally torpedoed by a German U-boat. Unknown to the passengers on board, however, were 173 tons of weaponry bound for war. Just three years following the sinking of the Titanic, there was another tragedy in the Atlantic: the 1915 sinking of the RMS Lusitania. Of the 1,960 known passengers, 1,196 of them died after the British liner was torpedoed by a German U-boat in the midst of World War I. The British ship had nearly the exact opposite route as its sunken predecessor and departed New York on May 1, 1915, to make the long journey to Liverpool — the Titanic left Southampton and was headed for New York. Besides civilians, the ship held a crew of over 500 — and some four million rounds of small-arms ammunition. While the Titanic is largely believed to have been the result of human hubris and a lack of foresight, the sinking of the RMS Lusitania may have been the result of a political conspiracy. It even catalyzed — in part — America's future involvement in the so-called Great War. Though it took nearly two years following her destruction, the United States did formally enter World War I, and it is often thought that the Lusitania incident, in conjunction with other factors, influenced this decision. The RMS Lusitania The RMS Lusitania and her sister ship, Mauretania, were the fastest passenger liners of their time. The high-speed Lusitania promised crowds first-class passage across the Atlantic in five days. These two ships were also the largest liners from their launch in 1906 until they were surpassed by Olympic and, of course, the Titanic.   Wikimedia CommonsThe first launch of the RMS Lusitania. June 7, 1906. The British government itself had sanctioned Lusitania's construction under the provision that should the circumstances require, she could be converted into an armed merchant cruiser. When World War I broke out, it seemed Lusitania would be called for duty, but she was ultimately relieved of her wartime responsibilities. Meanwhile, in an attempt to destroy the strong naval blockade the British had levied against them, the Germans waged unrestricted submarine warfare on British ships in the Atlantic. Commercial liners like the Lusitania were thus in great danger every time they went anchors up. She nonetheless remained in commercial service. For a time her colors were painted grey in disguise and her fourth boiler was shut down. By 1915, however, Britain felt confident enough in launching the Lusitania with full colors and scheduled her for launch across the Atlantic on May 1.   Getty ImagesThe magnificent lounge of the Cunard steamship Lusitania circa 1910. American Sentiment Before The Sinking The sinking of the Lusitania would sweep the American public into a fervent anti-German sentiment, but before the tragedy, the United States saw little reason to involve itself in Europe's bloody conflict. Tensions between Germany and the U.S. had escalated by 1915, however, as Germany's attempts to quarantine the British Isles restricted America's lucrative trade relationship with the U.K. Getty ImagesNewspaper ad from the German Embassy in Washington warning Lusitania travelers. Newspapers in New York published a warning on May 1, 1915 — right below an ad for the Lusitania — on behalf of the German Embassy in Washington, D.C, that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones should be aware of the danger in lurking German U-boats. But the passengers were assured that the Lusitania's speeds would keep them safe and the captain was told to employ zig-zag maneuvers to avoid U-boats. The Sinking Of The Lusitania Captain William Thomas Turner took the helm of the Lusitania when the ship's prior captain fell too ill to operate her. It was claimed that the prior captain was too anxious to direct a ship through a war zone. On May 1, 1915, she launched off New York's Pier 54 with a crew of 694 and 1,265 passengers, mostly British, Canadian, and American. The ship was burdened with an overbooked second class and a full first class. At approximately 2:12 p.m. on May 7, 1915, a torpedo struck the ship's starboard side. The 32,000-ton ship was irrevocably damaged. Some witnesses, including Captain Turner himself, would later say that two torpedoes were involved.   Wikimedia CommonsThe writing and reading room of for first class passengers of the RMS Lusitania. The primary explosion led to a secondary eruption, likely due to the ship's boilers blowing up from the initial blaze. It was presumably this subsequent detonation that resulted in the Lusitania's rather expedient disappearance from the ocean's surface. It was difficult for the crew to launch lifeboats due to the angle of the ship's sinking, and many boats splintered and capsized, taking dozens of passengers with them. The ship did not stay afloat for long and all passengers were forced to jump into the Atlantic's freezing waters. As such, many froze to death or drowned. It took a mere 18 minutes for the RMS Lusitania to start its descent to the ocean floor. To make matters worse, a nearby steamship refused to come to the Lusitania's rescue as it feared that it too could be susceptible to a torpedo attack. The Unknown 173-Ton Passenger The public later discovered that the ocean liner was carrying supplies of war among its cargo — 173 tons of it, to be specific. There were no mounted offenses aboard to protect it against enemy vessels, this was a cruise ship, to be sure, but here it was saddled with 173 tons of munitions bound for Britain presumably under the guise of a commercial voyage. According to Steven and Emily Gittelman's book, Alfred Gwynne Vanderbilt: The Unlikely Hero of the Lusitania, stowing weapons of war aboard commercial vessels had actually become common practice by 1915. In a stage of the war where wanton U-boat warfare could easily sink any and all transport ships supplying European allies with the tools they needed, alternatives had to be employed. "Many ships such as the Cameronia had already been requisitioned by the Admiralty to become armed merchant cruisers or loaded heavily with ammunition," the Gittelmans asserted. Chronicling America/Library of CongressThe New York Tribune's front page the day after the sinking of the Lusitania. May 8, 1915. The Germans maintained that despite also carrying citizens, the Lusitania was carrying weapons of war, which made her an enemy vessel. The United Kingdom subsequently saw a groundswell of anti-German sentiment. As the First Lord of the British Admiralty, Winston Churchill said that "the poor babies who perished in the ocean struck a blow at German power more deadly than could have been achieved by the sacrifice of 100,000 men." Moreover, American President Woodrow Wilson had already issued a diplomatic warning to Germany that if an American vessel or the lives of American citizens' was lost without just cause, the United States would "hold Germany to 'strict' accountability." In September of that year, Germany formally apologized for the sinking and vowed to curb its unregulated U-boat warfare activity. For the time being, President Wilson was satisfied enough with this apology as not to declare war on Germany. This didn't last long. In 1917, the infamous Zimmerman telegram ushered the Americans into the Great War. Library of CongressThe sinking of the Lusitania ushered in a dramatic rise in anti-German sentiment among both British and American citizenry. An Impetus For War British intelligence intercepted a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmerman to the German Minister of Mexico, Henrich von Eckhardt, which revealed that Germany was prepared to return to its previous model of wanton submarine warfare. All ships in the official war zone would be sunk, regardless of their civilian capacities, the telegram read. The telegram also revealed that Germany was considering an alliance with Mexico if the U.S. sided with the European Allies. This telegram, in combination with the loss of 120 American passengers aboard the Lusitania, justified to the Americans joining the war. Meanwhile, the ship's captain was accused of negligence and blamed for her destruction. Library of CongressOne of the 120 American victims of the sinking of the Lusitania being carried away on a stretcher. 1915. It was alleged that he was given specific instructions regarding safety maneuvers which he failed to follow. First Sea Lord Fisher asserted that "it's a certainty that Captain Turner is not a fool but a knave. I hope that Turner will be arrested immediately after the enquiry whatever the verdict." It was concluded that Turner had ignored every safety precaution of which he had been informed and was thus the cause for the ship's demise. Caught In An Espionage Operation According to Erik Larson, author of Dead Wake: The Last Crossing of the Lusitania, the blame does not solely rest on the ship's captain, and rather, on a covert British mission. In the Milton Keynes complex within Bletchley Park, where Alan Turing hacked the Nazi Enigma machine decades later, Brits deciphered German codebooks to mount anti-submarine espionage missions in a so-called "Room 40." Larson's research has led him to believe that the British intelligence unit in Room 40 orchestrated a cover-up for the ship's sinking by blaming it on the Lusitania's captain in order to preserve its espionage program. "Room 40 was this super-secret organization founded by the Admiralty to take advantage of the miraculous recovery of three German codebooks," Larson explained. "Using those codebooks, they successfully intercepted and read German naval communications." Footage of the Lusitania's captain, William Thomas Turner, retiring in 1919, courtesy of Pathé. Additionally, a British detective named William Pierpoint was assigned to board the Lusitania covertly to scope for potential German agents in hiding. He did apprehend three such agents the day the ship launched. The question then becomes whether or not the British were aware of Germany's attack on the ocean liner before it happened — and if so, did they then allow it to happen. But had they interfered, then they ran the risk of exposing their covert mission to the Germans. Perhaps they too thought that in allowing the Germans to attack a commercial liner, then potential allies like the Americans would have a reason to join in their war effort. One thing is for certain, however: the British blamed the Lusitania's captain as soon as they possibly could which, in and of itself, warrants some suspicion. "It's not exactly clear why the Admiralty went after Turner," said Larson. "But what is very clear from the record is that the Admiralty went after him immediately, within 24 hours. Turner was going to be made the scapegoat, which is odd because the publicity value of laying the blame on Germany would have been enormous." Footage of the aftermath, showing bodies being recovered and buried in Ireland, courtesy of Pathé. When asked whether or not Larson believed that this meant there was a British cover-up in place during the immediate aftermath of the ship's tragic sinking, he didn't dismiss the notion. "Cover-up is a very contemporary term," he said. "But one of Churchill's top priorities, when he was in the Admiralty, was to keep Room 40 a secret. Even to the point, as one of its members said, of not passing along actionable information that could have saved lives." Larson even referenced a prestigious naval historian who wrote a book about the top-secret Room 40 department. The man, long dead, was interviewed and left behind a transcript in the Imperial War Museum in London which essentially confirmed Larson's suspicions. "I've thought and thought about this and there's no other way to think about it except to imagine some sort of conspiracy," the transcript read. Survivor Accounts From The Lusitania "She was presumed dead and was left among the pile of other dead bodies," Colleen Watters reported to the BBC about her grandmother, Nettie Moore's, experience on the Lusitania. "Fortunately, her brother John noticed her eyelid flutter and eventually they were able to resuscitate her." Nettie Moore's survival the attack on the Lusitania wasn't a singular occurrence. Though 1,196 people died — including 94 children — a combination of luck and human aid saved some 767. "My grandmother, Nettie Moore, grew up in Ballylesson, County Down, and her childhood sweetheart was Walter Mitchell, who was the son of the rector at the local Holy Trinity Church in Drumbo," Watters explained. Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)One of the lifeboats from the RMS Lusitania is hauled onto the beach on the coast of Ireland. May 1915. When Mitchell was offered a position in Newark, New Jersey in 1912, he married Moore and the couple had a child named Walter in 1914. In order to get to New Jersey, the family decided to book a voyage on the luxurious ocean liner and set proverbial sail. Mitchell's brother John tagged along. "My grandmother always emphasized how happy they were on the boat," Watters recalled. "They had just finished lunch when Walter and Nettie went down to the cabin to see the baby who was being looked after while John joined his friends playing cards." At that exact moment, the torpedo hit. Though the family managed to secure a lifeboat, the elements were too harsh to survive. "Walter was holding his son but the baby died quite soon of exposure," Watters said. "They were trying to hold onto an upturned lifeboat. Walter eventually said 'I can't hold on any longer' and slipped away." Facebook/Cobh and Cork Harbour CentenariesMourners following the sinking of the Lusitania gather in Cobh, Ireland. "Their bodies were taken out of the water. My grandmother said she remembered being dragged by her feet, and her head bouncing on the deck of the ship. She was taken for dead and she was left with the dead bodies on the quayside." John, meanwhile, was fished out of the ocean by a local tugboat and brought to Cobh in County Cork, Ireland. He observed the dead being dragged out of the water — and saw both his brother and sister-in-law's bodies. It was too late for Mitchell, but John managed to resuscitate Moore. Moore was lucky. 885 deceased passengers were never found and of 289 bodies recovered from the sea, 65 were never identified. "I have been told that Nettie was in a shoe shop in Cork, and John was buying her shoes so they could come home," said Watters. "There she met some sailors who said they had found the body of a beautiful baby and she begged them to tell her where was the baby, what did they do with it, as she was sure it was Walter. But despite the best efforts, they weren't able to locate the body." Topical Press Agency/Getty ImagesA funeral service for the victims was held in Cobh, County Cork, Ireland. Moore, like countless other survivors of the RMS Lusitania, went through an unspeakably difficult time after the catastrophe. She couldn't sleep and feared she would soon lose her mind. The loss of her baby only compounded her psychological troubles. Only when a doctor overseeing her progress told her that she had to find hard work in order to find renewed purpose did she begin to get better. Moore became a nurse and trained as a midwife in the Rotunda hospital in Dublin. She spent the rest of her life helping deliver babies. Ultimately, that is about as positive an outcome as any when it comes to those who lived through the Lusitania disaster. Most passengers died by drowning in the ocean or succumbing to the temperatures. Those who lived lost friends or relatives. Tragically, the ship's sinking only led to more casualties and deaths — as World War I had just gained a new participant from the U.S. After learning about the sinking of the RMS Lusitania, have a look at these 33 rare Titanic photos from before and after its sinking. Then, check out the worst disaster in American maritime history, the explosion and sinking of the Sultana. "Churchill Sank the Lusitania to Get America into the War" By RICHARD M. LANGWORTH | October 19, 2023   Extract from the 1918 film, "Sinking of the Lusitania." (Winsor McCay, Wikimedia Commons) On 7 May 1915, Royal Mail Ship Lusitania was sunk within sight of land by a German submarine. Of her 1962 passengers and crew, 1199 (some estimates are higher) lost their lives. In the midst of the Dardanelles-Gallipoli crisis, the tragedy seemed incidental to some. Yet for a century, rumors swirled that Lusitania was deliberately sacrificed by the British, chiefly Churchill. His alleged aim was to so infuriate the Americans as to bring them into the war against Germany. More recently, critics charged that Churchill's Admiralty purposely contrived to steer the ship into harm's way. The complaint against Churchill reached critical mass in Colin Simpson's The Lusitania (1972). This popular work was selected by four book clubs and excerpted in the Reader's Digest and Life. Simpson's charges have frequently been repeated, especially since the arrival of the Internet. As recently as 2014, a book on Franklin Roosevelt, The Mantle of Command, casually alleged that the Churchill had a role in the loss of the "ill-fated American liner."1 The Lusitania was British, not American, operated by Cunard, commanded by Captain William Turner RNR. Inbound from New York, she was torpedoed by the German submarine U-20 eleven miles off the Old Head of Kinsale, Ireland. She experienced two explosions, the second catastrophic, and sank in only eighteen minutes. Among the lives lost were 128 Americans. Scholarly testimony to the most logical events has been published, but lacking glitz and pathos, it tends to be ignored.2 Yet rebuttals to Simpson's claims were in print long before his book, which mainly resurrected old canards.3 The New York Times, 8 May 1915. The newspaper marked this photo with an "X" and "XX" to suggest where torpedoes hit. Historians now generally agree that only one was fired. (Wikimedia Commons) "Armed cruiser containing troops and munitions" After the sinking, the German government referred to its prior warnings to travelers to avoid the vessels of Germany's enemies. Such ships were liable to be sunk, the Germans declared, particularly if they were armed. Simpson described the sighting of the liner, by Kapitänleutnant Walther Schwieger: "either the Lusitania or the Mauretania [her identical sister], both armed cruisers used for trooping."4 If that was how Schwieger saw her, it is inaccurate. The Lusitania (built in 1908 with possible wartime use in mind) did have twelve emplacements for small, six-inch guns. But no guns were ever fitted. If they had been, she certainly would have been an "armed cruiser." The Germans had examined her in New York. Had they found mounted guns, they would have demanded she be interned. They never did, and 109 witnesses at subsequent British and American inquiries said they saw no sign of guns.5 Neither were any troops aboard. Even if guns weren't mounted, Simpson argued, they were on board—not explaining what use they would be unmounted. Historian Thomas Bailey confounded even that argument, writing that a German reservist claiming to have seen mounted guns "confessed [to] perjury and was imprisoned." M.R. Dow, a reviewer with family connections to Cunard and the ship, wrote: "Simpson must have seen a German propaganda poster showing the Lusitania with guns popping out all over."6 "Explosives payload" Another claim is that Lusitania carried a huge cargo of guncotton, whose detonation blew the bottom out. "This is also pure fantasy," wrote Dow. "The amount of explosive claimed by Simpson actually amounts to what was a very high percentage of explosives delivered to the Western Front."7 A similar claim occurred in a 2007 documentary, Murder on the Atlantic. The Lusitania manifest did include 173 tons of rifle cartridges and unarmed shrapnel shells—not much in a 32,000-ton ship. Thomas Bailey wrote that were "not considered capable of causing a large detonation. American law apparently forbade only munitions which were considered a hazard to the safety of the passengers."8 Witnesses confirmed two explosions, the first caused by a German torpedo, the second of unknown but conspiratorial interest. The Lusitania was "loaded with munitions," goes the story; these caused the second explosion, which did most of the damage. More recent scholarship suggests the second explosion was caused by sea water hitting the ship's boilers after the torpedo struck.9 The Germans' best case for claiming that Lusitania was a ship of war was an order by the British Admiralty for merchant vessels to ram U-boats. But this was not their main line of defense. Speed, not ramming, was the ocean liner's main advantage. At her flank speed of 28 knots, Lusitania was three times as fast as a submerged U-boat, and nearly twice as fast as one on the surface.  Sailing into danger The scholar Harry V. Jaffa placed most of the blame on human error: "Not only was her steam reduced; her crew was also. The best men had been taken by the Royal Navy; lifeboat drills were listless…. The davits by which they had to be lowered were virtually unworkable from the moment the ship began to list. But the greatest of all the failures was the captain's, since he navigated almost exactly as he would have done in peacetime." Captain Turner had slowed down after striking the Irish coast, in order to arrive with the tide at Merseyside. In the 1930s, political opponents anxious to discredit Churchill's warnings about Hitler claimed he had purposely endangered Lusitania. This view was widely held by the Germans, including the Kaiser, Bailey wrote: "No evidence has ever been presented to support the theory."10 In 1972, Simpson claimed that Lusitania had "sailing orders" instructing Turner to rendezvous with a naval escort, the cruiser HMS Juno, off southwest Ireland. This put her on a direct course for U-boat-infested areas. But Sir Courtenay Bennett, the British Consul-General in New York, was quoted by Simpson as saying no such orders were issued.11 Captain Turner never referred to any orders, and Churchill said they would have made no sense. The navy did not have the resources to escort hundreds of merchant ships. Exceptions were sometimes made, but not for fast ships like Lusitania. "In a channel, where she could not maneuver, the Lusitania might well have needed an escort," Jaffa wrote. "But why she should need one forty miles west of Fastnet is something it was incumbent upon Mr. Simpson to explain."12 The liner sank in only 18 minutes. (Drawing by Claus Bergen, 1915, Library of Congress, public domain) Lusitania "was now alone" The second allegation against Churchill is a meeting said to have occurred on 5 May 1915 in the Admiralty map room. Present were Churchill, First Sea Lord Fisher, Chief of Naval War Staff Admiral Oliver, Director of Naval Intelligence Captain Hall, and Commander Kenworthy of Naval Intelligence. On the map were markers denoting U-20 (apparently the British knew exactly where she was), Juno and Lusitania, "closing Fastnet at upwards of 20 knots."  Simpson writes: "Admiral Oliver drew to Churchill's attention the fact that the Juno was unsuitable for exposure to submarine attack without escort, and suggested that elements of the destroyer flotilla from Milford Haven should be sent forthwith to her assistance." Here, Simpson wrote, "the Admiralty War Diary stops short, perhaps understandably, as it was here the decision was made that was to be the direct cause of the disaster…. Shortly after noon on May 5 the Admiralty signaled Juno to abandon her escort mission and return to Queenstown…. The Lusitania was not informed that she was now alone….13 Churchill's "conspiracy" The "Admiralty War Diary" mentioned in this melodramatic paragraph appears nowhere else in Simpson's book, not even the bibliography. No historian has found it. Professor Jaffa concluded that it was mix of accurate records and sheer supposition: "However much the ebullient Churchill interested himself in naval operations, it was not his primary task to make operational decisions"—particularly in the presence of Fisher, with whom Churchill was then "quarreling bitterly over the Dardanelles."14 (Fisher resigned ten days later.) The only eyewitness Simpson offered was Commander Joseph Kenworthy, later Baron Strabolgi, a Liberal turned Labourite and prominent pacifist.15 In his 1927 book, The Freedom of the Seas, he said Lusitania "was sent at considerably reduced speed into an area where a U-boat was known to be waiting and with her escorts withdrawn."16 The only part of this that is credible is the last four words.  HMS Juno (laid down 1898) made no sense as an escort. Her top speed was 19.5 knots, well below Lusitania's. It might be argued that Turner with his "sailing orders" slowed to rendezvous with Juno, having not been "informed" he was "now alone." But Turner, who survived, never confirmed this. Sailing orders that did exist In recounting the tragedy in 1937, Churchill himself quoted four distinct Admiralty orders: 6 May, 0050: To all British ships: Avoid headlands. Pass harbours at full speed. Steer mid-Channel course. Submarines off Fastnet. 6 May, 0750: To Lusitania: Submarines active off south coast of Ireland. 7 May, 1125:  To all British ships: Submarines active in southern part of Irish Channel. Last heard of south of Coningbeg Lighthouse. Make certain Lusitania gets this."  7 May, 1240: To Lusitania: Submarines five miles south of Cape Clear proceeding west when sighted at 10am. Churchill adds: "All these messages were duly received."17 Summary Except for Kenworthy's account, no other evidence, even circumstantial, exists of a conspiracy to sink the Lusitania. The chief cause of her loss was Captain Turner's decision, after sighting the Irish coast, to proceed northward at reduced speed to "make the tide" at Merseyside, as he would have in peacetime. He did not avoid headlands. He did not zig-zag, a routine precaution in submarine-infested waters. Though he had the time, he did not head out to deeper waters, maintaining speed to minimize the danger. At his normal cruising speed, chances of a successful torpedo attack would have been greatly reduced. There was no advantage and every danger in slowing down. It can be argued that Churchill and Fisher should have accepted Admiral Oliver's undocumented recommendation to escort the liner with destroyers. But as Lusitania historian David Ramsay noted: "…the Dardanelles operation entailed the diversion from home waters of destroyers—the one class of ship in which the Royal Navy had a negligible superiority over the Germans. Commenting on the loss of the Lusitania…Admiral Duff wrote: 'Indirectly the Dardanelles operation contributed; the [destroyers] that should be guarding merchant shipping are being used there.'"18 Ramsay, writing in 2004, confirmed the findings of Bailey and Jaffa. He also quoted "historians Stephen Roskill and David Stafford, who are at one in rejecting any conspiracy, by Churchill or anyone else."   Source:"Churchill Sank the Lusitania to Get America into the War" FALSE FLAG ATTACK: The Sinking of the Lusitania   RMS LUSITANIA FalseFlag.info World War I started in July of 1914 between the Allies comprised of the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire and the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Later in the war, the U.S., Italy and Japan joined the Allies and the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers. The people of the United States were not interested in joining the war. U.S. bankers and businessmen however, were making a sturdy profit from war bond trading and munitions sales. J.P. Morgan was brokering war bonds and making commissions on both the purchase and sale of them to finance the Allied cause. He had approximately $1.5 billion in loans out to France and England. Morgan was also heavily invested in shipping lines including the British White Star Lines that were supplying the Allies with food and ammunition supplies. J.P. Morgan had much to lose if the Allies lost the war and defaulted on his loans, bonds, and shipping contracts.   The Germans had a fleet of Uboats that were sinking the supply ships for the Allies. There was an agreement called Cruiser Rules which allowed for the Uboat to surface, issue a warning to allow the passengers to escape to lifeboats, and then the Uboat would sink the ship. Winston Churchill who was the First Lord of the Admiralty issued orders to merchant ships to fire upon or ram the Uboats.  This forced the Uboats to sink them without Churchill was desperate to have the U.S. join the Allies in the war. "The first countermove, made on my responsibility, was to deter the Germans from surface attack. The submerged U-boat had to rely increasingly on underwater attack and thus ran the greater risk of mistaking neutral for British ships and of drowning neutral crews and thus embroiling Germany with other Great Powers" The World Crisis by Winston Churchill. Churchill also ordered British ships to remove their names and when in port fly the flag of a neutral power, preferably the U.S. flag. Also the survivors of the U-boats "should be taken or shot-whichever is the most convenient" and "In all actions, white flags should be fired upon with promptitude." Just before the RMS Lusitania sailed in May, Churchill wrote this memo to Walter Runciman, president of Britain's Board of Trade: "It is most important to attract neutral shipping to our shores in the hope especially of embroiling the United States with Germany . . . . For our part we want the traffic — the more the better; and if some of it gets into trouble, better still."   The German Embassy in the U.S. paid for an advertising warning in 50 U.S. papers in April 1915 that the Lusitaniawas at risk for destruction and travelers should embark at their own risk. The U.S. State Department intervened though and only one paper, the Des Moines Register ran the warning. The Lusitania set sail for Liverpool on May 1st, 1915 from New York harbor. It was carrying millions of rounds of ammunition and shrapnel. The previous captain Daniel Dow had resigned because of mixing civilian passengers with munitions. The ship was to have a British battleship escort called the Juno but was recalled before the rendezvous in spite of the knowledge that a Uboat was active in the path of the Lusitania. On May 5th, the Uboat U20 sank the schooner Earl of Lathom. On May 6th, it also sank two more ships, the Candidate and Centurion. All of these sinkings occurred directly in Lusitania's course. The Lusitania was given orders under the premise of saving coal to only run 3 of 4 boilers which would slow the vessel considerably. The only warning Lusitania received was a general "submarines active off south coast of Ireland". At about 2:10 pm on May 7th the Lusitania was hit with a torpedo that had been fired by U20. Immediately following the explosion, a second explosion occurred. The ship sunk in 18 minutes. There were 1,959 people on board of which 1,198 died including 128 Americans. Captain William Turner was blamed by the Admiralty in an official Board of Trade inquiry held by Lord Mersey. Captain Richard Webb of the navy wrote to Mersey: "I am directed by the board of Admiralty to inform you that it is considered politically expedient that Capt Turner, the master of the Lusitania, be most prominently blamed for the disaster." Winston Churchill's response to the report given to Mersey was "Fully concur! We shall pursue the Captain without check!" Luckily for Captain Turner, Lord Mersey was a fair man and saw that Turner was becoming the scapegoat. Turner was found not guilty and the German government was blamed. Mersey resigned and called the trial "a damned, dirty business." The sinking of the Lusitania was a clear false flag perpetrated by Winston Churchill and the British Admiralty to draw America into the war. The blame should have been placed on Churchill's orders and not the German government. It was probably no coincidence that the ship was owned by J.P. Morgan's competition in shipping. The Lusitaniasinking did not immediately draw the U.S. into war however, and it was almost two years later that the U.S. finally joined the war. The U.S. has a big share of the blame as well. Colonel Edward M House who was Woodrow Wilson's right hand adviser was in Europe trying test the waters on how to get the U.S. into the war. Wilson had to remain to appear as anti-war since he ran on the 1916 presidential campaign slogan "He kept us out of war". Colonel House came up with a scheme to make it appear that the U.S was trying to broker peace with the Axis powers. The peace offering would be unacceptable to the Germans so it would seem as though the U.S. had attempted diplomacy. This is a memo from Walter Hines Page, the U.S. Ambassador to England, dated Feb. 9, 1916: "House arrived from Berlin-Havre-Paris full of the idea of American intervention. First his plan was that he and I and a group of the British Cabinet (Grey, Asquith, Lloyd George, Reading, etc.) should at once work out a minimum programme of peace – the least that the Allies would accept, which, he assumed, would be unacceptable to the Germans; and that the President would take this programme and present it to both sides; the side that declined would be responsible for continuing the war… Of course, the fatal moral weakness of the foregoing scheme is that we should plunge into the War, not on the merits of the cause, but by a carefully sprung trick." From The Strangest Friendship in History: Woodrow Wilson and Colonel HouseGeorge S. Vierick. Then this memo was issued by Sir Edward Grey, the British Foreign Secretary, on Feb. 22nd, 1916: Colonel House told me that President Wilson was ready, on hearing from France and England that the moment was opportune, to propose that a Conference should be summoned to put an end to the war. Should the Allies accept this proposal, and should Germany refuse it, the United States would probably enter the war against Germany. Colonel House expressed the opinion that, if such a Conference met, it would secure peace on terms not unfavourable to the Allies; and, if it failed to secure peace, the United States would leave the Conference as a belligerent on the side of the Allies, if Germany was unreasonable. Colonel House expressed an opinion decidedly favourable to the restoration of Belgium, the transfer of Alsace and Lorraine to France, and the acquisition by Russia of an outlet to the sea, though he thought that the loss of territory incurred by Germany in one place would have to be compensated to her by concessions to her in other places outside Europe. If the Allies delayed accepting the offer of President Wilson, and if, later on, the course of the war was so unfavourable to them that the intervention of the United States would not be effective, the United States would probably disinterest themselves in Europe and look to their own protection in their own way. I said that I felt the statement, coming from the President of the United States, to be a matter of such importance that I must inform the Prime Minister and my colleagues; but that I could say nothing until it had received their consideration. The British Government could, under no circumstances accept or make any proposal except in consultation and agreement with the Allies… (Initialled 'E.G.' by Sir Edward Grey) Foreign Office. Wilson also had an agenda to bring in his vision of world government under the League of Nations and saw World War I as his opportunity to do so. The plans of Churchill, Wilson, Morgan, and House to get the U.S. involved in the war came to fruition on April 16, 1917 when the U.S. formally declared war.   Source: RMS Lusitania - FalseFlag.info 1915–1917 — Armenian Genocide Ottoman authorities carry out mass deportations and killings of Armenians. Consequences include: Large-scale deaths Forced marches Property confiscation Community destruction Population displacement Scholarly estimates generally range from several hundred thousand to over one million deaths. The genocide becomes one of the defining human-rights catastrophes of the twentieth century. 1915 - 1917  Armenian Genocide  -Shortly after the systematic arrest and execution of Armenian intellectuals, the Ottoman authorities escalated their genocidal campaign by ordering the forced deportation of Armenian populations from their ancestral lands in Anatolia. What was framed as a "resettlement" was, in reality, a death sentence. Entire villages and towns were emptied as men, women, and children were driven from their homes under the pretext of wartime security. Men were frequently executed outright, often gathered in groups and shot, bayoneted, or burned alive—methods designed not just for extermination but for terror. Without their husbands, fathers, and brothers to protect them, women, children, and the elderly were left defenseless, forced into grueling death marches toward the Syrian Desert. These marches were deliberately designed to maximize suffering and fatalities. Ottoman forces and Kurdish paramilitary groups, acting under government orders, systematically brutalized the deportees. Many were subjected to rape, abduction, and human trafficking, with young Armenian girls sold into slavery or forcibly converted to Islam. Deportation and mass killing   ~1–1.5 million Armenians killed   Camps, bureaucracy, denial   During the late Ottoman period, particularly 1914–1915, Armenian civilians were systematically disarmed prior to and during the genocide—but this did not occur as a single voluntary act of "giving up arms." It happened through state coercion and deception. Key elements:  Selective disarmament Armenian men were conscripted into the Ottoman army, then: Disarmed   Reassigned to labor battalions   Executed en masse   This removed organized Armenian self-defense early.   Civilian weapon confiscation   Authorities ordered Armenians to surrender weapons under threat.   Searches followed; weapons were often planted to justify punishment.   Disarmament was framed as a "security" measure during wartime.   Isolation after disarmament   Once disarmed:   Deportation orders were issued   Villages were emptied   Armed escorts and irregular militias carried out mass killings   With no weapons, communities were unable to resist deportation columns or massacres.   Genocide followed  -Approximately 1–1.5 million Armenians were killed through:   Mass shootings   Death marches   Starvation   Sexual violence   These actions are recognized as genocide by most historians and many states.   Why this pattern matters historically   Historians often identify a recurring sequence in mass atrocities:   Identification of a target population  Legal or administrative marginalization Disarmament (formal or informal) Isolation Mass violence framed as "security" or "relocation"   This sequence appears not only in the Armenian Genocide, but also in:   Nazi Germany (Jewish disarmament and police powers)   Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge   Rwanda (weapon monopolization by militias)   Bosnia (UN "safe areas" without arms)   April 24, 1915  -Armenian political, religious, and intellectual leaders arrested in Constantinople   Many are deported inland and killed. This date is widely recognized as the start of the genocide. May 1915  -Armenians Tehcir Law (Temporary Deportation Law) enacted. Deportation orders issued province by province.   Deportation is presented as:   "Relocation"   "Security measure"   "Protection from war zones"   Spring–Summer 1915  -Armenian civilians are:   Forced from homes with minimal notice Allowed to take little or no food or property Placed in unarmed columns Property is confiscated or redistributed under "abandoned property" laws.   Crucial point: Deportation occurs after disarmament and leadership removal.   Summer–Fall 1915  -Entire columns are:   Massacred outside towns   Driven into rivers or ravines   Burned alive in barns and caves   Women and children are:   Sold   Forced into slavery or conversion   Killed after prolonged abuse   1915 — The Birth of a Nation Released Directed by D. W. Griffith. One of the first blockbuster feature films in history. Introduced filmmaking techniques that influenced the modern movie industry. Depicted Reconstruction and African Americans in highly racist ways. Portrayed Black men as threats to white women. Helped popularize Lost Cause mythology after the Civil War. Often credited with contributing to the revival of the Ku Klux Klan. Generated protests from groups including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. It wasn't just a movie. It demonstrated the growing power of mass media to shape public opinion, historical memory, race relations, and politics. By 1915, films could reach millions of people and influence how Americans understood their own history. 1916  Armenian Survivors who reach camps in Syria and Mesopotamia Are deliberately starved   Killed in secondary massacres   Ottoman Interior Ministry orders camps "liquidated."   1916 — Sykes–Picot Agreement   UK–France divide Ottoman lands   Create mandate states: Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine   1916 — Easter Rising  -Ireland. Important precursor to: Irish independence Irish migration British Empire tensions 1916 — National Park Service Created The National Park Service is established. Creates a permanent federal system for managing national parks and historic sites. 1917 — Russian Revolution Bolsheviks seize power. 1917 — The British Rebrand Amid anti-German sentiment, King George V dropped Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. House of Windsor created (July 17, 1917). Often summarized as: "German blood, English name." Habsburg and German relatives quietly resettled in Britain under neutral or Anglican covers. Fall of the Romanovs   Collapse of the Romanov dynasty Abdication of Tsar Nicholas II   Russian Revolution dismantles:   Divine-right monarchy   Church–state fusion   Imperial aristocracy   Meaning: One of Europe's oldest dynastic systems ends abruptly under war + hunger + institutional failure.   1917 — Russian Revolution The Romanov monarchy collapses. Tsar Nicholas II abdicates. The Bolsheviks seize power later that year. The Russian Empire begins its transformation into the Soviet Union. 1917 — United States Enters World War I The United States formally enters the war on the side of the Allies. American manpower and industrial production help shift the balance of the conflict. 1917 — Balfour Declaration Britain expresses support for the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. The declaration becomes an important milestone in modern Middle Eastern history 1918–1948 — British Mandate Palestine Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe increases. Hebrew language revival accelerates. Some immigrants begin adopting Hebrew names. June 1918 — Soviet Oil Nationalization The Bolshevik government nationalizes the Russian oil industry. Private oil holdings in Baku and elsewhere are taken over by the state. This is one of the largest oil nationalizations in history. 1918 — Romanov Family Executed Tsar Nicholas II and members of the Romanov family are executed. The possibility of a Romanov restoration effectively ends. Stories that Grand Duchess Anastasia survived later become popular legends. 1918 — Austria-Hungary Collapses Emperor Charles I relinquishes power. The Austro-Hungarian Empire breaks apart. Successor states include: Austria Hungary Czechoslovakia Yugoslavia Territory is also transferred to: Poland Romania Italy The Habsburg monarchy ends. 1918 — Influenza Pandemic The Spanish Flu spreads worldwide. Estimated deaths range from 50 to 100 million. One of the deadliest pandemics in recorded history. November 11, 1918 — World War I Ends Armistice signed between Germany and the Allies. Fighting largely ceases on the Western Front. Aftermath of World War I Romanovs The Romanov dynasty loses power permanently. Surviving family members flee abroad. No significant political restoration occurs. Habsburgs The Habsburg monarchy ends. However, the family remains: Wealthy Internationally connected Politically active Later generations continue participating in European diplomacy and politics. Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire survives the war temporarily but is severely weakened. The empire ultimately collapses after the conflict. Jewish Communities By the end of World War I, Jewish communities remain documented throughout: Russia Austria-Hungary Germany Britain France Ottoman territories United States Networks visible in earlier centuries have evolved into: Businesses Newspapers Charities Educational institutions Political organizations *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-11" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-11" data-testid= "conversation-turn-26" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> June 28, 1919 — Treaty of Versailles Officially ends the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers following World War I. Signed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, the same room where the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871 after defeating France. The treaty imposes: Territorial losses Military restrictions Reparations The "War Guilt Clause" (Article 231) Germany loses colonies and significant territory, while its military is severely limited. Many Germans view the treaty as a national humiliation. The Treaty of Versailles becomes one of the most controversial agreements in modern history and is widely regarded as a major factor contributing to the political instability that later helped fuel the rise of Nazi Germany and World War II. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-12" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-12" data-testid= "conversation-turn-28" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Some historians do mention the name Hall of Mirrors, but generally not because they believe it signifies deception. The room's French name is Galerie des Glaces ("Gallery of Mirrors"). It was built between 1678 and 1684 for Louis XIV at the Palace of Versailles. The mirrors were intended to symbolize: Royal power Wealth Prestige France's ability to manufacture luxury goods previously imported from Venice In the 17th century, large mirrors were extraordinarily expensive. The room was essentially a display of state power and economic strength. Historians writing about the Treaty of Versailles frequently mention that it was signed in the Hall of Mirrors because of its symbolism: 1871: German Empire proclaimed there after France's defeat. 1919: Germany forced to sign the peace treaty there after its defeat. Many historians describe the choice as: Symbolic Deliberate Humiliating for Germany Political theater Some historians use phrases such as "a calculated humiliation" or "symbolic revenge," particularly when discussing French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau and the French desire to reverse the humiliation of 1871. As for the name itself sounding like deception, that is more of a modern interpretation. Historians generally do not argue that the room was named "Hall of Mirrors" to imply trickery or illusion. The name literally refers to the 357 mirrors lining the gallery. That said, writers and commentators sometimes use the name metaphorically. For example, someone examining diplomacy, propaganda, public narratives, or elite politics might observe the irony that one of the most consequential treaties in history was signed in a room called the Hall of Mirrors. That would be an interpretive or literary observation rather than a standard historical conclusion. It is worth noting that Versailles itself is often discussed by historians as a place where power, image, ceremony, and political symbolism were carefully staged. In that sense, the Hall of Mirrors was designed to project an image of power as much as it was a physical room full of mirrors. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-13" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a204751-eb88-83e8-a8bf-2e6eb55d5ee2-13" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> January 18, 1871 — Hall of Mirrors, Versailles The German Empire is proclaimed. Wilhelm I is declared German Emperor. France has just been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. German leaders celebrate their victory inside the French royal palace. June 28, 1919 — Hall of Mirrors, Versailles Germany is forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Germany has just been defeated in World War I. French leaders host the peace conference in the exact same room. Many historians view this as intentional symbolism. To the French, it was: Reversal of 1871 Restoration of national pride Historical justice To many Germans, it was: Public humiliation Revenge by the victors A reminder of defeat That is why the Hall of Mirrors is often specifically identified in history books rather than simply saying "Versailles." The symmetry is hard to miss: 1871 Germany rises in the Hall of Mirrors. 1919 Germany is humbled in the Hall of Mirrors. Whether one sees that as irony, symbolism, political theater, or something deeper, historians generally agree the location was chosen deliberately because everyone present understood what had happened there forty-eight years earlier. The room itself became part of the message. 1919 — League of Nations Created First major international organization created to prevent future wars. Predecessor to the United Nations. By this point, there are numerous identifiable Jewish institutions, organizations, philanthropic networks, religious bodies, newspapers, and political movements.   What Zevi's movement demonstrated was that long before World War I, there already existed enough family, religious, commercial, and communication connections for news and ideas to move remarkably quickly between Jewish communities spread across thousands of miles.  By 1914, those communities were far more visible, documented, organized, and politically active than they had been in the 1600s.  By the time of World War II, Jewish populations in Europe were not hidden or unknown.  Governments throughout Europe had already spent decades or centuries collecting information through:   Census records    Tax records    Birth records    Marriage records    Synagogue membership records    Residence registrations    Business licenses    School records    Assassination of Franz Ferdinand triggers World War I. Cousins George V (UK), Wilhelm II (Germany), and Nicholas II (Russia) lead opposing sides — all grandsons of Queen Victoria. 1918  → Austro-Hungarian Empire collapses. → Habsburg monarchy abolished. → German Empire falls. → Romanovs executed. Surviving nobles scatter to Switzerland, Britain, and the Vatican.   1918–1922 — Collapse of Four Empires  Collapse of: German Empire Austro-Hungarian Empire Russian Empire Ottoman Empire This is one of the biggest geopolitical resets in modern history.  1918–1920 — Spanish Flu Pandemic Roughly 675,000 U.S. deaths. More Americans died from influenza than in World War I. End of World War I: Prussia Loses Its Monarchy  The German Empire collapses. The Kaiser abdicates. Prussia becomes a "Free State" within the Weimar Republic. It remains the largest and most influential German state. Germany survives, but Prussia begins to lose autonomy.  When the Habsburg empire dissolved in, its former aristocracy didn't vanish — they rebranded as "European" nobility. Some married into the British peerage, some into banking families. Britain, emerging as the stabilizing imperial center, became the safe harbor for dispossessed continental elites. Titles might fade, but estates, trusts, and art collections quietly transferred into British custody. Fall of the Habsburgs   Collapse of the House of Habsburg Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolves Central Europe fractured into new nation-states   Habsburgs and the Catholic Church   Habsburg legitimacy historically grounded in:   Catholic universalism   Papal recognition   Defender-of-the-Faith doctrine   World War I breaks:   Church-backed imperial legitimacy   Multi-ethnic religious empire model   Result:  Dynastic Catholic empire replaced by:   Secular nation-states   Ethnic borders   Bureaucratic governance  1920s – 1930s: Silent Restoration   Habsburg heirs (Otto von Habsburg, etc.) become prominent in Catholic diplomacy and Pan-European movements. Windsor's consolidate image as global imperial family — new symbolic center of monarchy. Aristocrats displaced from Central Europe marry into British nobility and finance houses. → Estates and trusts transferred westward. 1920 — Hitler Adopts the Swastika Hitler officially adopts the swastika as the symbol of the Nazi Party. The symbol had already been circulating among German and Austrian nationalist groups for decades. Hitler standardized its design and placed it at the center of Nazi propaganda, flags, armbands, and party imagery. The swastika subsequently became one of the most recognized and controversial symbols in modern history. 1920 — Treaty of Sèvres Native Boarding Schools: Government and Catholic-run institutions forcibly removed Indigenous children from their families. Widespread reports of sexual, physical, and psychological abuse.   January 10, 1921 A fire on, in the basement of the Commerce Department building damaged or destroyed the population schedules. About 25% burned outright. Another 50% sustained water and smoke damage. The Census Bureau estimated it would take two to three years to copy and salvage what remained. They never started.  1921–1926 — Osage Reign of Terror Numerous Osage people die under suspicious circumstances. Methods include: Murders Poisonings Shootings Bombings The victims are often individuals whose oil headrights could be inherited by others 1921 — Tulsa Race Massacre A white mob destroys Tulsa's Greenwood District ("Black Wall Street"). Results include: Approximately 35 blocks destroyed More than 1,000 homes burned Up to 300 deaths estimated One of the most significant episodes of racial violence in American history. Witnesses reported aircraft overhead, and some accounts described incendiary materials being dropped from the air. 1921 — Guardianship System The federal government frequently requires many Osage to have court-appointed white guardians to manage their money. The system becomes notorious for corruption and exploitation. Many historians regard it as a major abuse of federal Indian policy. 1921 — Fire Damages 1890 Census Records Remaining 1890 Census schedules suffer additional damage in a government building fire in Washington, D.C. The already-fragmented census becomes even more difficult to preserve. 1921 — Kingdom of Iraq Created Britain establishes the Kingdom of Iraq following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Part of the broader post-World War I restructuring of the Middle East. 1922 — Soviet Union Established The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is formally created. Becomes one of the dominant powers of the twentieth century. 1923 — Treaty of Lausanne Defines the modern international boundaries of Türkiye. Replaces the earlier Treaty of Sèvres. A major milestone in post-Ottoman state formation. 1923 — Republic of Türkiye Established The Republic of Türkiye is formally proclaimed under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Marks the end of the Ottoman era and the beginning of the modern Turkish state. 1923 — O'Shaughnessy Dam Completed The O'Shaughnessy Dam is completed. Hetch Hetchy Valley is flooded to create a reservoir. The project becomes one of California's most important water systems. Historical Significance The Hetch Hetchy controversy is often described as the event that launched the modern American environmental movement. It helped define the difference between: Conservation Wise use of natural resources and Preservation  -Protecting natural landscapes from development 1924 — Johnson-Reed Immigration Act Establishes strict immigration quotas. Greatly reduces immigration from: Southern Europe Eastern Europe Asia One of the most significant immigration laws in American history 1925–1926 — Federal Investigation Osage Local investigations struggle to solve the murders. The newly organized federal Bureau of Investigation becomes involved. 1925 — Scopes Trial Tennessee teacher John T. Scopes prosecuted for teaching evolution. Becomes a national debate over science, religion, and education 1926 — Osage Murder Conspiracy Exposed Investigators uncover a conspiracy led by rancher: William King Hale Several murders were committed to obtain Osage oil wealth through inheritance. 1927 — The Jazz Singer   -First feature-length "talkie" with synchronized spoken dialogue. Marks the transition from silent films to sound films and helps launch the modern Hollywood era. The film starred Al Jolson and included blackface musical performances, reflecting minstrel-show traditions that were common in American entertainment at the time but are now widely viewed as racist and controversial. 1927 — Buck v. Bell The U.S. Supreme Court upholds compulsory sterilization laws. Becomes one of the most controversial decisions in American legal history. Supports expansion of eugenics policies throughout the United States. 1927–1938 — Nuremberg Nazi Party Rallies Nuremberg becomes the symbolic center of Nazi mass political rallies. Massive propaganda events designed to demonstrate party unity and power. October 2, 1928 — Opus Dei Founded Opus Dei founded in Madrid by Josemaría Escrivá. Key milestones: 1947 — Receives first Vatican approval 1982 — Elevated to a Personal Prelature by the Vatican 1929 — Stock Market Crash Massive collapse in stock prices. Triggers the Great Depression. One of the most important economic events of the twentieth century. 1930 — Bank for International Settlements (BIS) January 20, 1930 — Hague Conference approves creation of the BIS. May 17, 1930 — BIS begins operations in Basel, Switzerland. Created to administer German reparations following World War I. Becomes the world's first major institution devoted to central-bank cooperation.   1930s — Great Depression Global economic collapse spreads across much of the world. Results include: Mass unemployment Bank failures Business failures Migration Political instability 1930s — U.S. Vagrancy Raids Police departments conduct large-scale sweeps targeting individuals labeled: Vagrants Transients Hobos Loiterers Many are detained despite not being accused of serious crimes. People are often sent to: Labor camps Road camps County jails Work farms The policy reflects broader Depression-era efforts to control visible poverty. 1930s–1970s — Home Children Programs More than 100,000 children are relocated from Britain to: Canada Australia New Zealand South Africa Many later report abuse, exploitation, neglect, and harsh labor conditions. The program becomes one of the most controversial child migration programs in modern history 1930s–1970s — Redlining Banks, insurers, and government agencies restrict lending in Black neighborhoods. Contributes to long-term wealth and housing disparities. 1931 — Hoover Dam Construction Begins One of the largest engineering projects in American history. Designed to: Control the Colorado River Generate electricity Provide water storage 1932 — Saudi Arabia Established The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is formally established under Ibn Saud. A major development in modern Middle Eastern history. 1932–1933 — Holodomor Famine occurs in Soviet Ukraine during Stalin's collectivization policies. Millions die. The event remains central to debates regarding: State power Historical memory Famine policy Genocide classification 1932–1972 — Tuskegee Syphilis Study The United States Public Health Service studies Black men with syphilis in Alabama. Participants are not fully informed of the study's purpose. Even after penicillin becomes available, treatment is withheld from many participants. 1933 — Adolf Hitler Comes to Power Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany. The Nazi regime begins consolidating power. 1933–1945 — Nazi Era and Holocaust Jewish immigration to Palestine increases as Jews flee Germany and Eastern Europe. Millions who might otherwise have emigrated are murdered in the Holocaust. 1933 — Glass-Steagall Act Major U.S. banking reform legislation. Separates commercial and investment banking. Becomes a cornerstone of Depression-era financial regulation. 1933 — Destruction of Remaining 1890 Census Records Remaining portions of the 1890 Census are authorized for destruction. One of the greatest record losses in American history. 1933 — Federal Expansion of Record Systems During the Great Depression, the federal government expands significantly. Recordkeeping becomes increasingly: Centralized Standardized Bureaucratic Identity becomes more dependent on government documentation. 1933–1935 — Nazi Destruction of Prussian Autonomy Hitler dismantles Prussia's independent government structures. Prussia remains in name but loses meaningful political autonomy. A major step in Nazi centralization of power. 1933–1942 — Grand Coulee Dam Largest concrete structure in North America at the time. Provides: Hydroelectric power Irrigation Economic development Throughout the Pacific Northwest. 1935 — Nuremberg Laws Nazi Germany enacts racial laws removing citizenship and legal protections from German Jews. One of the key legal foundations of later persecution and the Holocaust. 1935 — Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) The Bureau of Investigation is reorganized and renamed the FBI. Becomes the primary federal law-enforcement and domestic intelligence agency of the United States. 1935–1945 — Nazi Persecution of Roma Roma populations throughout Nazi-controlled territories face: Discrimination Deportation Imprisonment Mass murder Hundreds of thousands are killed during the Holocaust. 1935 — Social Security Act Creates the Social Security system. Millions of Americans begin obtaining formal identity documentation for benefits and employment purposes. 1936 — BIS Immunities Expanded The Hague Convention expands legal protections and immunities associated with the BIS and participating central banks. November 1936 — Operation Guido Nazi Germany expands support for Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. Represents increasing German involvement in Spain before World War II. 1936 — Hoover Dam Completed One of the most famous engineering projects in American history. Provides: Water Flood control Electricity For much of the American Southwest. 1936–1939 — Spanish Civil War Conflict between Republican and Nationalist forces in Spain. Serves as a precursor to World War II. Foreign powers including Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union become involved. 1936 — First National Archives Building Opens Federal records begin centralized preservation. Major turning point for historical and genealogical research. Firebombing (incendiary bombing) as a military strategy. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:ebfbec21-a217-4d82-bc9e-631bbb509314-8" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:ebfbec21-a217-4d82-bc9e-631bbb509314-8" data-testid= "conversation-turn-18" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1937–1938 — Japanese forces conduct large-scale bombing of Chinese cities, including Wuhan, Shanghai, and later Chongqing during the Second Sino-Japanese War. These campaigns included incendiary attacks against urban areas. 1943–1945 — Allied forces use large-scale incendiary bombing against German cities. February 13–15, 1945 — Bombing of Dresden, which created a massive firestorm. March 1945 onward — U.S. firebombing campaign against Japanese cities, most notably Tokyo. Timeline 1937 — Second Sino-Japanese War begins 1938 — Battle and bombing of Wuhan 1942 — Doolittle Raid 1944 — Operation Matterhorn begins June 15, 1944 — First B-29 raid on Japan from China February 1945 — Dresden bombing March 1945 — Tokyo firebombing campaign escalates The B29 timeline 1937–1938 — Japan bombs Chinese cities including Wuhan. 1940–1943 — B-29 developed and tested. 1944 — B-29s deployed to India and China under Operation Matterhorn. June 15, 1944 — First B-29 raid on Japan from Chinese bases. 1944–1945 — China serves as the launch platform for strategic bombing of Japan. 1945 — Mariana Islands bases largely replace China because they are far more practical. February 1945 — Dresden bombing 1950–1953 — B-29s serve again in the Korean War. 1937 — Bonneville Dam  -Improves navigation and power generation on the Columbia River. Bonneville Dam 1938 — Nuclear Fission Discovered Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann demonstrate nuclear fission. Foundation of atomic energy and nuclear weapons. 1938: Aktion Arbeitsscheu Reich — What Actually Happened  -In June 1938, the Nazi regime carried out one of its largest pre-war mass arrests. The targets were:  Homeless individuals  Beggars  People labeled "work-shy" (unwilling/unable to work)  Alcoholics  People with perceived mental illness or "deviant" behavior  Anyone the regime considered "socially disruptive"  Key facts:  10,000+ people were rounded up within days.  They were sent to concentration camps including Dachau, Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen.  Many were not Jewish and had committed no crimes.  This was framed publicly as a "clean-up" for public safety before major Nazi events.  The arrests created the administrative blueprint for later mass round-ups.  The critical point: The state recast poverty as criminality. Once a person was defined as a "social problem," the state claimed the right to remove them from public life.   1939–1975 — Rule of Francisco Franco Initially, children were taken from women associated with the defeated Republican side after the Spanish Civil War. Over time, the practice expanded into a broader network involving some hospitals, religious institutions, doctors, and adoption intermediaries. Estimates Approximately 300,000 children are often cited in media and advocacy discussions as a possible upper-end estimate of babies allegedly taken or improperly adopted between the 1940s and the 1990s. Historians generally agree that thousands of cases occurred, but the exact number remains disputed because records are incomplete, altered, or missing. 1939 — Germany invades Poland 1939 – 1945: WWII — The Second Purge   Axis vs. Allies: again, cousins at war.   Many Habsburgs oppose Hitler, flee to Britain or the U.S.   September 20, 1940, Tesla announced that he was ready to divulge the secret of his "Teleforce" and "Death Ray", and his invisible "Chinese Wall of Defense" to protect the United States. 1940 — Plutonium first produced and identified at the University of California, Berkeley 1940s–1970s — Forced Sterilizations Some Black women are subjected to involuntary or coerced sterilization procedures. Part of broader eugenics programs operating in multiple states. 1941 — Chemical proof of element 94 completed. The element is named plutonium. 1941 — Lookout Mountain Facility Constructed Originally built as a World War II air defense and flight-control center overlooking Los Angeles. 1941 — Pearl Harbor Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. United States enters World War II. 1942–1945 — Manhattan Project begins. 1942 — Office of Strategic Services (OSS) Created Established during World War II under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Directed by William J. Donovan, known as "Wild Bill" Donovan. America's first large-scale foreign intelligence and special operations organization. Conducted espionage, sabotage, resistance support, psychological warfare, and intelligence gathering behind enemy lines. 1942–1945 — Tennessee Valley Authority Expansion Major electrification and flood-control projects. Brings power to rural communities. Tennessee Valley Authority 1942 — Chicago Pile-1  -First controlled nuclear chain reaction. 1943 — Hanford Site Established Built in Washington State. Produced plutonium for the first atomic weapons. Became one of the most contaminated nuclear sites in the United States. Hanford Site January 4, 1943—  Tesla's faithful assistant, George Scherff, visited Tesla for the last time, Tesla was found deceased in his hotel room on the morning of January 8. 1943. He had passed away between those four days since Scherff's visit." The article continued, "Following Tesla's death the United States Office of Alien Property, under the instructions of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, confiscated all of Tesla's papers and property. This was an interesting maneuver considering that Tesla was a United States citizen."  The significance of this benign description of Tesla's inventions and his last days has a direct relationship to the previously unknown claims of Otto Skorzeny. As Skorzeny described (to Berman) in detail his involvement with George H. W. Bush (George H. Scherff, Jr.) in organizing the CIA by absorbing Nazi S.S. agents," he intimated that it was Reinhard Gehlen and himself who murdered Nikola Tesla on January 6, 1943 by strangulation/suffocation. January 7, 1943 Tesla was dead and penniless in a cheap hotel in New York City. Tesla's possessions were literally seized by the government, J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI. Allegedly, Tesla's possessions included trunks which held his papers were turned over to U.S. Custodian of Alien Property for safekeeping.  January 9, 1943 Federal alien control agents went to the hotel and seized all the remaining property of Tesla, consisting of about two truckloads of materials. They sealed all articles and transferred them to the Manhattan Storage and Warehouse Co., New York. The FBI notified the Department of Justice, Offices of Vice-President Wallace, Office of Scientific Research, and Military Intelligence Division about the seizure of the equipment, experiments, and research of Nikola Tesla. The belief persists that the FBI and U.S. Government still possess and secret valuable working papers of Nikola Tesla.  It is also generally believed that the Soviet Union's interest in Tesla's "Death Ray" and "Wireless Transmission of Electrical Current", and Tesla's research ideals intensified after the U.S. dropped two atomic bombs on Japan in 1945.   The Soviets took Tesla's research and electromagnetic radiation (EMR) seriously, while the U.S. toyed with Tesla's ideas as the "mad scientist" science fiction ramblings until the end of WWII when the Knights of the Black Sun used Tesla Technologies as another bargaining chip with Allies Forces. Tesla's possessions were eventually inherited by his nephew, Kosanovich, and housed at the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Tesla Magnifying Transmitter (TMT): THE MOSCOW SIGNAL 1943 to 1969 Fort Detrick (ˈ d iː t r ɪ k) is a United States Army Futures Command installation located in Frederick, Maryland. Fort Detrick was the center of the U.S. biological weapons program from 1943 to 1969. Since the discontinuation of that program, it has hosted most elements of the United States biological defense program.   1944 — Liquidation of the Roma camp at Auschwitz 1944 — Bretton Woods Agreement  -Creates postwar financial order. 1944–1945—  Operation Matterhorn The United States based B-29 Superfortress bombers in western China. The bombers flew from airfields around Chengdu and India. Their targets were the Japanese home islands and Japanese-controlled territories. Fuel, bombs, and supplies had to be flown over the Himalayas ("The Hump"), making the operation extremely difficult. June 6, 1944 — D-Day (Normandy Landings) Allied forces launch the largest amphibious invasion in history during World War II. More than 150,000 American, British, Canadian, and Allied troops land on the beaches of Normandy, France. Opens the long-awaited Western Front against Nazi Germany. Marks the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from German occupation. The five main landing beaches were: Utah Beach Omaha Beach Gold Beach Juno Beach Sword Beach D-Day was part of: Operation Overlord The overall Allied campaign to invade and liberate German-occupied France. Key figures included: Dwight D. Eisenhower Bernard Montgomery Omar Bradley June 15, 1944— First B-29 Raid on Japan B-29s took off from bases in China and bombed the steel works at Yawata.  -This was the first U.S. bombing raid on the Japanese home islands since the Doolittle Raid. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> August 25, 1944 — Liberation of Paris Less than three months after D-Day, Allied forces liberate Paris. May 8, 1945 — Victory in Europe (VE Day) Nazi Germany surrenders. World War II ends in Europe. 1945–1946 — Nuremberg Trials Allied powers prosecute major Nazi leaders, establishing modern principles for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and international justice. July 16, 1945 — Trinity Test uses a plutonium device. August 9, 1945 — Plutonium bomb Fat Man detonated over Nagasaki, Japan. 1945 — United Nations Founded 1945 — Atomic Bomb  -Beginning of the nuclear age. Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki February 13–15, 1945 — Bombing of Dresden  -Allied bombers attack Dresden, Germany, creating massive firestorms that destroy much of the city. The bombing becomes one of the most debated military actions of World War II and a lasting symbol of the destructive power of aerial warfare. August 9, 1945 — The plutonium bomb Fat Man is detonated over Nagasaki. World War II Ends: Prussia Is Divided   -Eastern Prussia is carved up between Poland and the Soviet Union. Millions of ethnic Germans are expelled westward. Western Prussian provinces became states within occupied Germany. The Allied powers view Prussia as too militaristic to survive.  1945 and 1948, the Nazis began infiltrating all world governments.  They resolved to bring about a Fourth Reich in the United States, and gave this project the code name of Omega. – James Rink  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-0" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:05644fed-5154-43c0-b1ae-272286eb69fc-0" data-testid= "conversation-turn-2" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Date: 9 June 1953 This is essentially the beginning of MKUltra. MKUltra was formally authorized by CIA Director Allen Dulles in April 1953. LSD is the focus The memo explicitly states the project concerns the study of LSD. It also mentions studying drugs related to LSD and substances that might counteract its effects ("LSD antagonists"). Use of a "cut-out" The phrase "cut-out and cover" is intelligence terminology. It means an intermediary organization was being used to hide CIA involvement. Philanthropic grant disguise The money was apparently routed as a medical-research grant rather than directly from the CIA. Hospital involvement The final paragraph suggests hospital personnel had Top Secret clearances and knew the actual purpose of the project 1945–1953 — Early CIA and Military Mind-Control Research Following World War II, U.S. intelligence agencies became concerned that foreign governments had developed advanced interrogation and psychological conditioning techniques. Programs including Project BLUEBIRD (1950) and Project ARTICHOKE (1951) explored: Hypnosis Drug-assisted interrogation Isolation Psychological manipulation Memory alteration research These programs became the foundation for later CIA behavioral experiments. 1953 — MK-Ultra Authorized CIA Director Allen Dulles formally approves Project MKUltra. The program funded research at: Universities Hospitals Prisons Military facilities Private research institutions Research involved: LSD and other psychoactive drugs Hypnosis Sensory deprivation Sleep disruption Electroshock studies Behavioral conditioning Many subjects were not fully informed they were participating. 1953–1964 — Expansion of Human Experimentation MKUltra grows into dozens of subprojects across the United States and Canada. Documented activities included: Unwitting drug administration Psychological stress experiments Interrogation research Studies of suggestibility and compliance Experiments involving vulnerable populations Subjects sometimes included: Prisoners Psychiatric patients Hospital patients Students Military personnel 1950s–1960s — Canadian Experiments At Allan Memorial Institute in Montreal, psychiatrist Donald Ewen Cameron conducted controversial CIA-funded experiments. Patients were subjected to: Drug-induced states Prolonged sleep treatments Repetitive recorded messages ("psychic driving") Electroconvulsive therapy Many patients later reported severe psychological injury. 1950s–1970s — Allegations Involving Children Researchers and survivors have alleged that some intelligence-connected behavioral experiments involved minors. What is documented: Children were sometimes used in broader Cold War-era medical and psychological research programs. Some institutionalized children participated in government-funded studies. Records confirm experimentation on vulnerable populations. What remains disputed: Claims of organized CIA child mind-control programs. Allegations of systematic sexual abuse directed by MKUltra. Claims linking specific child-abuse networks directly to CIA operations. Many records were destroyed, making some allegations difficult to verify. 1973 — MKUltra Records Destroyed CIA Director Richard Helms orders destruction of most MKUltra records. As a result: Large portions of the program remain unknown. Surviving evidence comes from financial records, scattered files, and later investigations. 1975 — Church Committee Investigation The United States Senate Church Committee begins investigating intelligence-agency abuses. Investigators uncover evidence of: Illegal surveillance Domestic intelligence activities Unwitting human experimentation The inquiry brings MKUltra to public attention. 1977 — Congressional Hearings Reveal More Details Further hearings reveal: CIA-funded research at numerous institutions. Use of LSD on unwitting subjects. Experiments conducted without informed consent. The public learns far more about the scope of MKUltra than previously known. Timeline Version 1950–1951 — Project BLUEBIRD and ARTICHOKE explore interrogation, hypnosis, and behavioral control techniques. 1953 — CIA launches MKUltra to study mind control, drugs, hypnosis, and behavioral manipulation. 1953–1964 — MKUltra expands through universities, hospitals, prisons, and research institutions. 1950s–1960s — CIA-funded experiments at Montreal's Allan Memorial Institute subject patients to extreme psychological treatments. 1950s–1970s — Experiments involve vulnerable populations; allegations of child involvement and abuse remain controversial and only partially documented. 1973 — CIA Director Richard Helms orders destruction of most MKUltra records. 1975–1977 — Congressional investigations expose unwitting human experimentation and bring MKUltra into public view. 1945:  The Bretton Woods agreement dictated the assets in the Collateral Accounts were to be managed by the Trillenium Trilateral Tripartite Commission, representing the U.S.A., the United Kingdom and France.  The CIA was tasked with protecting the Collateral Accounts, but quickly began stealing the money.  The TTTC was disbanded in 1995 because it was so corrupt.  May 1945 — Operation Paperclip   1945–1946 — Operation Overcast transitions into Operation Paperclip. 1945–1959 — Thousands of German scientists, engineers, and technicians are brought to the United States. Notable figure: Wernher von Braun.   1946–  Since 1946, the U.S. has given 76 transnational non-governmental organizations immunities, privileges, and tax exemptions under the BIS umbrella.  1946–1958 — Marshall Islands Nuclear Test Program United States conducts 67 nuclear tests in the Marshall Islands. Tests occur primarily at: Bikini Atoll Enewetak Atoll 1947 — CIA Created  -Beginning of the modern intelligence era. Central Intelligence Agency 1947 — Lookout Mountain Laboratory Established The U.S. Air Force establishes a secret motion-picture and photographic unit at the site. Created to document atomic weapons testing and other military programs. Becomes one of the most important Cold War film-production facilities in the United States. 1947 — National Security Act Creates the modern national security structure. Establishes the Central Intelligence Agency and modern Department of Defense. 1947 — Truman Doctrine  -Formal beginning of U.S. Cold War containment policy. 1947 — Prussia Is Officially Abolished   -The Allied Control Council formally dissolved Prussia. No modern nation carries its name. Its lands are now divided between Germany, Poland, and Russia. Prussia disappears from the map but survives as cultural memory, including in the families of scientists who emigrated to the United States.  1947 — Transistor Invented  -Foundation of modern electronics. 1947 – 1950— Royal Consolidation & Reemergence   1947: Princess Elizabeth marries Philip Mountbatten (born Prince of Greece and Denmark, from the Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg line — yet another German branch). → Germanic bloodline returns to the British throne under another new name. 1950: Post-imperial Europe stabilizes: → The Windsors stand as heirs of the old continental web — a re-centered Habsburg-Saxe lineage wearing a British crown.   1948 — Air Force and Atomic Energy Commission Take Control Lookout Mountain Facility is expanded and remodeled into a highly secure film studio and laboratory. Used extensively to document nuclear weapons tests in Nevada and the Pacific 1948 — State of Israel established 1948–1960s — Hebraization of Names in Israel Many immigrants, especially Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe, adopt Hebrew names and surnames. The practice becomes common among government officials, military leaders, educators, and public figures. Prominent examples include David Grün becoming David Ben-Gurion, Moshe Shertok becoming Moshe Sharett, and Golda Mabovitch becoming Golda Meir. 1948 — General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)  -Predecessor to the WTO. 1948 — Universal Declaration of Human Rights Important after: Holocaust WWII Genocide discussions 1949 — NATO Founded The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is established. Founding members include: United States Canada United Kingdom France Belgium Netherlands Luxembourg Italy Portugal Denmark Norway Iceland Becomes the primary Western military alliance during the Cold War. 1949 — Department of Defense Created The National Military Establishment is renamed the Department of Defense (DoD). Brings together: U.S. Army U.S. Navy U.S. Air Force Creates a more centralized military command structure. Reflects the transition from wartime mobilization to permanent Cold War readiness. 1949 — Chinese Communist Revolution Mao Zedong proclaims the People's Republic of China. One of the most significant geopolitical events of the twentieth century. August 29, 1949 — First Soviet Atomic Bomb The Soviet Union successfully detonates its first atomic bomb. The American nuclear monopoly ends. The nuclear arms race begins. 1949–1989 — The Polygon (Semipalatinsk Test Site) The Soviet Union establishes its primary nuclear testing complex in Kazakhstan. Approximately: 456 nuclear tests conducted Above-ground and underground detonations Significant long-term radiation exposure to local populations One of the largest nuclear testing programs in history. 1949–1950 — Operation Magic Carpet Approximately 49,000 Yemenite Jews are airlifted from Yemen and Aden to Israel. One of the largest humanitarian airlift operations of the era. 1948–1954 — Yemenite Children Affair Hundreds of Yemenite immigrant families report that infants and young children disappeared from hospitals, camps, and medical facilities. Parents were frequently told the children had died but often received no body, death certificate, or burial information. The affair remains one of the most disputed and controversial issues in Israeli history. 1950–1953 — Korean War First major armed conflict of the Cold War. United Nations forces led by the United States fight North Korean and Chinese forces. Results include: Millions of casualties Permanent division of Korea Expansion of Cold War military alliances 1950s — Peak Institutionalization in the United States More than 550,000 people are confined in state psychiatric hospitals. Common features include: Forced institutionalization Overcrowding Limited due process protections Labor performed by patients Eugenics-era sterilization programs The system reaches its largest size during the decade. 1950–2002 — United States Catholic Clergy Abuse Crisis According to the 2004 John Jay Report, approximately 4,392 Catholic priests in the United States were accused of sexually abusing minors. Investigations reveal decades of abuse allegations and institutional concealment across multiple dioceses. The scandal later becomes part of a wider international crisis involving Catholic institutions. 1951 — First Electricity Produced from Nuclear Power An experimental reactor in Idaho produces usable electricity. Marks the beginning of civilian nuclear power generation. 1951–1992 — Nevada Test Site More than 900 nuclear tests are conducted in Nevada. Includes: Atmospheric detonations Underground detonations The site becomes central to Cold War weapons development. Radiation exposure among "downwind" populations remains controversial. 1952–1960s — Moscow Signal The Soviet Union directs low-level microwave transmissions at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow. The phenomenon becomes known as the "Moscow Signal." The purpose of the transmissions remains debated. The incident contributes to Cold War concerns regarding electromagnetic radiation, surveillance, and intelligence operations. 1950s–1960s — Israel Ringworm Radiation Treatments Thousands of children, primarily from immigrant families from North Africa and the Middle East, receive radiation treatments for scalp ringworm. The episode later becomes controversial due to allegations regarding radiation dosage, informed consent, long-term health effects, and government oversight. 1950s–1960s — Ireland Magdalene Laundries Church-run institutions confine thousands of girls and women. Many report: Forced labor Physical abuse Social isolation Family separation The institutions later become the subject of government investigations and public apologies 1950s–1960s — Civil Rights Era Violence Civil-rights activists face: Murders Bombings Police violence Intimidation Examples include: Birmingham church bombing (1963) Murder of Medgar Evers (1963) Freedom Summer murders (1964) 1952 — First U.S. Hydrogen Bomb  -Thermonuclear era begins. Ivy Mike 1952 — Rocky Flats Plant Opens Located near Denver, Colorado. Manufactured plutonium triggers ("pits") for U.S. nuclear weapons. One of the most important weapons-production sites in the country. Rocky Flats Plant 1953 — MK-Ultra Authorized CIA mind-control and behavioral research program. Included drug experiments, hypnosis, sensory deprivation, and interrogation studies. Project MKUltra 1954 — Soviet Union (First Nuclear Power Station)  -Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant Located near Moscow. First nuclear power plant in the world to supply electricity to a power grid. Began operation on June 27, 1954. Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant 1955:  President Eisenhower put together an American version of the SSP using technology given to the U.S. by the Nazis.  The administration entered into joint ventures with the Nazis in the hopes of spying on them. 1955 — Polio Vaccine  -Major public health milestone 1955 — Murder of Emmett Till Fourteen-year-old Emmett Till is kidnapped and murdered in Mississippi. The case becomes a major catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement. Vietnam  U.S. involvement  1955 — Common start date (Military Assistance Advisory Group expansion and support of South Vietnam). 1965 — Major U.S. combat troop deployment begins. 1973 — U.S. combat involvement officially ends after the Paris Peace Accords.   1955–1975 — Full conflict April 30, 1975 — Fall of Saigon and reunification under North Vietnam. 1956 — United Kingdom Calder Hall Opened October 17, 1956. First nuclear power station in the world built on an industrial scale. Produced both electricity and plutonium. Often called the world's first commercial nuclear power station. Calder Hall 1956 1954 — Castle Bravo Largest U.S. nuclear test. Far larger than expected. Radioactive fallout spreads across the Pacific. Castle Bravo Brown v. Board of Education  -School segregation ruling. Brown v. Board of Education. The U.S. government aggressively inserted religious language into public life "Under God" added to the Pledge (1954)  "In God We Trust" becomes the official national motto (1956)  Motto printed on all paper currency   1956 — Interstate Highway System  =One of the largest infrastructure projects in history. 1956 — COINTELPRO Begins FBI counterintelligence program established. Targets a variety of political organizations and activists. Later becomes highly controversial. COINTELPRO 1957 — Rocky Flats Fire  -Major plutonium contamination incident. December 2, 1957 — Shippingport Atomic Power Station First full-scale commercial nuclear power plant in the United States. Major milestone in civilian nuclear energy. Shippingport Atomic Power Station 1958— President Eisenhower created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.  It's leader was a Project Paperclip rocket scientist named Wernher von Braun.  NASA was established in 1958 for two purposes.  The first was to deceive the public by making it appear that space exploration was at a primitive stage; the second was to channel billions into the real space program.  The United States actually had joint space ventures with the Soviet Union, which were called Solar Warden and Radiant Guardian.  France had a secret space program as well.  While von Braun helped the U.S. government pretend that rockets were the only way to launch craft into outer space, his countrymen were busy colonizing the galaxy.  February 7, 1958— DARPA Established as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) by the U.S. Department of Defense. Created in response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik 1 Launch in October 1957. 1972 — Renamed DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). Briefly reverted to ARPA (1993–1996). 1996–present — Again known as Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). 1958 — Integrated Circuit Invented  -Foundation of computers. 1960s— the Antarctic Germans built a second Antarctic base.  Task groups were created to expand out into the solar system, and bases were built on the Ceres planetoid, moons around Saturn, the Kuiper Belt, and the Oort Cloud.  The Germans would even travel back in time 400 years to settle planets all over the Milky Way galaxy.  Over three billion people now live off-world under various German SSP groups, protected by the Nacht Waffen—the Dark Fleet. – James Rink  1960s–1980s – Canada -Duplessis Orphans: Thousands of children falsely labeled as mentally ill were institutionalized and abused. The Catholic Church and Quebec government were complicit.   1961: The USSR passed laws imposing up to 2 years of forced labor for "parasitism." Thousands were sent to:  remote labor colonies  interior deportations  psychiatric hospitals  Famous example: Joseph Brodsky, the poet, was arrested and declared a "social parasite" for doing freelance creative work.  1962, the CIA discovered the Moscow signal bombarding the U.S. Embassy. The CIA bought in an outside consultant, Dr. Milton Zaret, and code-named the investigation "Project Pandora". Dr. Zaret found the Moscow signal was composed of several different frequencies, which was directed straight at the Ambassador's office. The Moscow signal remained secret for a decade.  Monkeys were brought into the embassy and exposed to the Moscow signal. The monkeys developed blood composition anomalies and unusual chromosome counts. Embassy personnel were not informed of the Moscow signal or its harmful effects until about 1972.  Stoltita, a major Soviet newspaper, reported that Victor Sedletsky, a scientist from Kiev, claimed that the practical testing of "new kind[s] of weapons based on the impact of certain frequencies on the human body" occurred back in 1965.   The U.S. government began to examine the affects of the Moscow signal. The job was turned over to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). DARPA is now developing electromagnetic weaponry. The man in charge of the DARPA program, Dr. Jack Verona was alleged to be so important and so secretive that he didn't even return President GHW Bush's telephone calls.  Jack Verona, The Raven, was listed as a defense witness in People v. Flenaugh.[20]Dr. Verona was the head of the DIA's Scientific and Technical Intelligence Directorate, who simultaneously ran a DIA mind-control program called "Sleeping Beauty" that dealt with the offensive use of microwave weapons. 1962 — Cuban Missile Crisis  -Closest the Cold War came to nuclear war. 1963 — Glen Canyon Dam Completed Creates Lake Powell. One of the most controversial dam projects in U.S. history. Glen Canyon Dam   1964 — Civil Rights Act  -Landmark federal legislation 1965 — Voting Rights Act  -Major voting-rights protection 1969 — Rocky Flats Fire One of the most serious industrial nuclear accidents in U.S. history. Large plutonium release concerns. ARPANET -Precursor to the Internet. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:fc259647-f742-4d3d-ad0b-bad9a663d4b5-11" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:fc259647-f742-4d3d-ad0b-bad9a663d4b5-11" data-testid= "conversation-turn-24" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> July 20, 1969— Moon Landing  -Apollo 11 Moon Landing  -Astronauts: Neil Armstrong Buzz Aldrin land the lunar module Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle on the Moon First Moonwalk July 20, 1969 (UTC)  -Neil Armstrong becomes the first human to walk on the Moon. His famous words:  "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."  Buzz Aldrin follows shortly afterward. Return to Earth July 24, 1969  -Apollo 11 safely splashes down in the Pacific Ocean. Timeline Entry July 20, 1969 — First Human Landing on the Moon  -Apollo 11 lands on the Moon. Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the lunar surface, followed by Buzz Aldrin. The mission marks a major milestone in the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Companion Space Timeline 1957 — Sputnik 1 launched by the Soviet Union 1961 — Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human in space 1962 — John Glenn orbits Earth 1969 — Apollo 11 Moon Landing 1972 — Apollo 17 1981 — First Space Shuttle Columbia flight 1998 — Construction begins on the International Space Station 2022 — Artemis I launched July 20, 1969 — Apollo 11 lands on the Moon; Neil Armstrong becomes the first human to walk on the lunar surface. 1970s 1971–Present — War on Drugs Controversies Critics argue that drug enforcement policies disproportionately affect Black communities. Issues include: Sentencing disparities Mass incarceration Police practices 1971 — Intel 4004 First commercial microprocessor. Marks the beginning of the microprocessor revolution that powers modern computers and electronics.  1971 — End of Bretton Woods The United States suspends dollar convertibility into gold. The post-World War II monetary system effectively ends. Currencies increasingly float against one another. One of the most significant financial events of the twentieth century.  August 15, 1971 — Nixon Ends Gold Convertibility Richard Nixon announces that foreign governments can no longer exchange dollars for gold. The U.S. dollar becomes a purely fiat currency. Marks a major turning point in global finance.  February 8, 1971 — Nasdaq Opens NASDAQ Composite begins operation as the world's first electronic stock market. Helps transform global securities trading through computerized systems.  1971 — British Withdrawal from the Gulf Britain ends its treaty obligations in the Persian Gulf. Bahrain and Qatar become independent. The UAE is formed. Many monarchies, borders, and legal frameworks established during the British period remain in place.  1972 — Watergate Break-In Burglars connected to President Nixon's re-election campaign break into Democratic National Committee offices. The scandal eventually leads to congressional investigations and political crisis.  1973 — Oil Crisis Arab oil producers impose an embargo following the Arab-Israeli War. Fuel shortages and inflation affect much of the Western world. Energy security becomes a major geopolitical issue.  1973 — MKUltra Records Destroyed CIA Director Richard Helms orders destruction of many MKUltra files. Most surviving information comes from records that escaped destruction and later congressional investigations.  1973 — Roe v. Wade The U.S. Supreme Court recognizes a constitutional right to abortion. One of the most influential and controversial court decisions in modern American history.  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-3" data-turn-id-container= "request-6a2075da-1f6c-83e8-98c0-cebd135d6021-3" data-testid= "conversation-turn-36" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> 1975–1979 — Khmer Rouge Rule and Cambodian Genocide The Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot seizes control of Cambodia. Cities are emptied, private property abolished, and millions forced into labor camps. An estimated 1.5–2 million people die from execution, starvation, disease, and forced labor. One of the deadliest political regimes of the twentieth century. 1975–1977 — Church Committee Congressional investigations expose intelligence and surveillance abuses by U.S. government agencies. Public attention focuses on CIA, FBI, NSA, and intelligence operations.  1975 — Fall of Saigon The Vietnam War ends with the collapse of South Vietnam. Large refugee movements follow throughout Southeast Asia.  1975 — Operation Babylift During the final days of the Vietnam War, thousands of Vietnamese children are evacuated from South Vietnam and adopted abroad. The operation remains debated because of issues involving identity, documentation, and family separation.  1976–1983 — Argentina's Dirty War Military dictatorship conducts a campaign against suspected political opponents. Thousands disappear.  1977 — Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo Founded Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo begins searching for children taken from political prisoners during Argentina's military dictatorship. DNA testing later helps identify many of the stolen children.  1977 — Alex Haley's Roots Roots: The Saga of an American Family is published. Sparks enormous public interest in genealogy throughout the United States. Particularly influential in African American family-history research.  1977 — Voyager Program Launches Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 begin their missions. Become the longest-operating spacecraft in history.  1978 — Camp David Accords Peace agreement framework negotiated between Egypt and Israel with U.S. mediation. Major milestone in Middle Eastern diplomacy.  1979 — Three Mile Island Accident Most serious commercial nuclear power accident in U.S. history. Raises public concern about nuclear energy and reactor safety.  1979 — Iranian Revolution Overthrows the Shah of Iran. Establishes the Islamic Republic. One of the most consequential geopolitical events of the late twentieth century.  1979 — Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan Soviet forces enter Afghanistan. Begins a decade-long conflict with global Cold War implications.  1979 — Smallpox Eradicated Smallpox officially declared eradicated worldwide. First human disease eliminated through coordinated global vaccination efforts.  1980s 1980s – United States Franklin Scandal Allegations emerge that boys connected to Nebraska's Boys Town and other institutions were trafficked to powerful individuals. Claims involve politicians, businessmen, and intelligence-linked figures. Multiple investigations occur. The allegations remain highly controversial and disputed. Questions regarding witness credibility, destroyed evidence, and institutional accountability continue to generate debate. 1980 — Mount St. Helens Eruption Largest volcanic eruption in modern U.S. history. Destroyed forests, roads, bridges, and communities throughout parts of Washington State. Fifty-seven people were killed. 1980–1988 — Iran–Iraq War One of the deadliest conflicts of the late twentieth century. Over one million casualties are estimated. Included trench warfare, missile attacks, and chemical weapons use. Helped reshape Middle Eastern geopolitics. 1981 — First Reported AIDS Cases Doctors report unusual illnesses among young men in the United States. Marks the beginning of the AIDS epidemic. Becomes one of the most significant public health crises of the twentieth century. 1981 — IBM Personal Computer IBM introduces the IBM PC. Helps standardize personal computing. Accelerates the spread of computers into businesses, schools, and homes. 1982 — Germany Recognizes the Roma Genocide Germany formally recognizes that Roma and Sinti victims were persecuted and murdered by Nazi Germany on racial grounds. Represents a major milestone in historical recognition. 1982 — Tylenol Murders Seven people die after cyanide-laced Tylenol capsules are sold in Chicago. Leads to modern tamper-resistant consumer packaging standards. 1983 — Internet TCP/IP Transition ARPANET transitions to TCP/IP networking protocols. Creates the technical foundation for the modern internet. Computer networks begin expanding globally. 1983–1990 — McMartin Preschool Case Began in Manhattan Beach, California. Allegations of child sexual abuse at the McMartin Preschool lead to one of the longest and most expensive criminal trials in American history. Investigations involve hundreds of children and highly controversial interviewing techniques. No convictions result. The case becomes central to debates regarding: Child abuse investigations Recovered memories Interviewing methods Media influence The Satanic Panic era 1984 — Bhopal Disaster Toxic gas leak at a pesticide plant in India. One of the deadliest industrial disasters in history. Thousands die and many more suffer long-term health effects. 1984–1985 — Ethiopian Famine Severe famine affects millions. International media coverage triggers large-scale global aid efforts. One of the most widely publicized humanitarian crises of the decade. 1984–1885 — West Point and Military Academy Abuse Scrutiny Reports and allegations involving: Hazing Sexual misconduct Sexual assault Abuse of authority Institutional handling of complaints Receive increasing public attention. The issue continues into the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s as military academies face growing scrutiny regarding reporting and accountability. 1985 — Live Aid Global charity concerts organized to raise funds for famine relief in Africa. One of the largest televised humanitarian events in history. 1986 — Chernobyl Nuclear reactor explosion and fire in Soviet Ukraine. Radioactive contamination spreads across Europe. Becomes the worst nuclear power accident in history. Strongly influences global nuclear policy and public opinion. 1986 — Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster Space Shuttle Challenger breaks apart shortly after launch. All seven crew members are killed. One of the most widely viewed tragedies in television history. 1986–1990s — Belgium Marc Dutroux Affair Belgian serial offender Marc Dutroux becomes linked to a major child abuse case. Public controversy develops around: Police failures Judicial failures Missing evidence Allegations involving elite networks Multiple witnesses die under unusual circumstances, fueling public distrust and conspiracy theories. The case becomes one of the largest scandals in modern Belgian history. 1987 — Black Monday Largest one-day percentage stock market decline in U.S. history. Financial markets around the world experience severe volatility. 1987–1989 — First Intifada Large Palestinian uprising occurs in the Israeli-occupied territories. Becomes a defining event in the modern Israeli-Palestinian conflict. 1988 — Lockerbie Bombing Pan Am Flight 103 explodes over Scotland. 270 people are killed. One of the deadliest terrorist attacks prior to September 11, 2001. Late 1980s — Presidio Child Abuse Investigation Allegations emerge involving children connected to military families at the Presidio Army base in San Francisco. The investigation occurs during the broader era of: Daycare abuse allegations Ritual abuse allegations Institutional abuse investigations Some convictions occur. Other allegations remain disputed and controversial. The case remains part of ongoing debates regarding child abuse investigations and institutional accountability. 1989 — Exxon Valdez Oil Spill One of the largest environmental disasters in U.S. history. Millions of gallons of crude oil spill into Alaska's Prince William Sound. Long-term ecological damage follows. 1989 — FBI and EPA Raid Rocky Flats Federal agents conduct an unprecedented criminal investigation of the Rocky Flats nuclear weapons facility. Raises questions regarding: Environmental contamination Nuclear waste management Government oversight 1989 — Tiananmen Square Protests Student-led demonstrations occur in Beijing. Chinese military forces suppress the protests. Becomes one of the defining political events of the late Cold War era. 1989 — Fall of the Berlin Wall Barrier separating East and West Berlin begins to come down. Symbolizes: The collapse of communist governments across Eastern Europe The approaching end of the Cold War German reunification One of the most recognizable events of the twentieth century. 1989 — Velvet Revolution Peaceful transition away from communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Part of the broader collapse of Soviet-aligned governments across Eastern Europe. 1989–1991 — World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee develops the World Wide Web. Creates the foundation for modern websites, online publishing, and internet communication. 1990 — German Reunification East and West Germany formally reunify. One of the most significant geopolitical events following the Cold War. 1990s Romania & Eastern Europe Children-for-Sale Network —In the economic chaos post-Communism, children from orphanages were trafficked to Western Europe and Israel.   1991 — Soviet Union Dissolves  -One of the most important geopolitical events of modern history 1991 — World Wide Web Opens 1992 — Production Ends Rocky Flats  -Weapons manufacturing ceases. Researcher Ken Adachi published two articles in 2007 that revealed that Prescott and George H.W. Bush were Nazi agents and that Nazis had infiltrated the OSS and were behind the creation of the CIA.  The first article begins as follows:  In 1998, 29-year-old Eric Berman of Florida began dating a local girl whose ninety-year-old father possessed "the largest hands I'd ever shaken."  Over time, "Big Ed," as he was known locally, revealed to the younger man that his real name was Otto Skorzeny, legendary SS (Schutzstaffel) commando of World War II fame, personal bodyguard to Adolf Hitler, and subsequent life-long CIA operative.  But that was just the beginning.  Before he died in 1999, Skorzeny revealed to Berman that President George Herbert Walker Bush was German, and that his real name was George Scherf Jr.  He claimed that President Bush's father, Prescott Bush, was really George Scherf Sr., and he was a high-ranking member of the Nazi Party.  Adachi has summarized Skorzeny's revelations as follows:  Skorzeny published books about his World War II exploits in varied editions starting in 1950 (My Commando Operations: The Memoirs of Hitler's Most Daring Commando).  Some of the more explosive highlights of Skorzeny's revelations to Berman include:  The true identity and Nazi-planned subversive mission of George Herbert Walker Bush, 41st President of the United States; alleged to have been brought to America (with Skorzeny as his bodyguard) and covertly adopted by Prescott Bush.  Skorzeny claimed that George H.W. Bush was born George H. Scherf, Jr., and that he was the son of George Scherf, Sr., the German-born assistant to inventor Nikola Tesla. Young George Scherf allegedly spent his first years in America snooping around Tesla's lab, helping his father in the 1930's steal or glean whatever they could of Tesla's work and transfer it to Germany.  Tesla had casually remarked to a couple named Rey, recently emigrated to the United States, of the mischievous prying nature of a "little monkey" around his lab whom he had dubbed "curious George."  This character would later become the basis of the children's book series, Curious George.  Co-author Alan Shalleck, murdered on Feb. 5, 2006, by the CIA  Skorzeny's role (with Reinhard Gehlen) in the assassination ofNikola Teslaby suffocation on January 6, 1943.  The pair tricked Tesla on January 5 into revealing the full details of his most important discoveries.  After killing him they stole his most valuable inventions, along with the contents of his safe, which were delivered to Hitler.  (James Rink says these included anti-gravity technology, teleportation, scalar weapons and free energy.) The faked April 1945 suicide of Hitler in the Berlin bunker (corroborating the 1948 CIA interrogation of Gestapo ChiefHeinrich Mueller, the Nordon Report, and the Russian 1946 Investigative Committee report to Stalin). Skorzeny's pivotal role in consolidating the intelligence assets of the Nazi Gestapo and the Nazi-infiltrated Office of Strategic Services (OSS) into theCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA)in 1947, working with George Herbert Walker Bush, Nazi SS spy master Reinhard Gehlen, "Wild Bill" Donovan, and fifth columnist, Allen Foster Dulles.  Skorzeny claimed central responsibility for setting up the Odessa operation to surreptitiously relocate 50,000 (fifty thousand) Nazis into North and South America with CIA complicity and protection. Skorzeny's claim thatReinhard Gehlen,Josef Mengele, and George H.W. Bush directly participated in the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and his brother, Robert F. Kennedy.  The Curious George character was based on George Herbert Walker Bush, who, in the 1930s, spied on Tesla for the Nazis.  2000s – Vatican & Catholic Church Abuse Scandals Abuse scandals emerge across more than 30 countries, including: United States Ireland Germany Australia Chile Canada France Belgium Independent commissions, court cases, and media investigations reveal widespread abuse and institutional cover-ups. The crisis becomes one of the largest religious scandals in modern history. September 11, 2001 — September 11 Attacks Coordinated terrorist attacks strike the United States. Hijacked aircraft hit: World Trade Center Pentagon A fourth aircraft crashes in Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 people are killed. One of the most consequential events of the modern era. Leads to: War in Afghanistan Expansion of intelligence and surveillance programs Department of Homeland Security Global War on Terror 2001–Present — Department of Homeland Security Era Created in response to the September 11 attacks. 2001 — China Joins WTO China joins the World Trade Organization. Accelerates globalization, manufacturing relocation, and international trade. Helps reshape the global economy during the following decades. 2001–2021 — War in Afghanistan Longest war in U.S. history. Began following the September 11 attacks. Ended with the withdrawal of U.S. and allied forces in 2021. 2003 — Iraq War United States and coalition forces invade Iraq. Results include: Fall of Saddam Hussein Regional instability Insurgency and sectarian conflict Long-term geopolitical consequences 2000s–2020s — United States & Global Epstein-Maxwell Network Jeffrey Epstein trafficked underage girls for sexual exploitation. Associates and visitors included: Politicians Business leaders Scientists Celebrities Royal figures Ghislaine Maxwell was convicted in 2021 for child sex trafficking-related offenses. The case generated continuing public debate regarding elite networks, accountability, intelligence connections, and institutional protection. 2000s–2020s — Haiti, Congo, Central African Republic UN Peacekeeper Abuse Scandals Multiple investigations document allegations involving UN peacekeepers. Allegations include: Sexual abuse Exploitation of children Human trafficking Transactional sex Critics accuse international institutions of inadequate accountability and weak prosecution efforts. August–September 2005 — Hurricane Katrina August 23, 2005 — Tropical depression forms. August 25, 2005 — First landfall in Florida. August 28, 2005 — Strengthens to Category 5 in the Gulf of Mexico. August 29, 2005 — Major landfall near Buras, Louisiana. Levee failures flood much of New Orleans. August–September 2005 — Massive rescue and recovery operations. Approximately: 1,800+ deaths More than $100 billion in damages One of the costliest natural disasters in U.S. history. 2007 — iPhone Introduced Apple iPhone introduced by Apple Helps launch the modern smartphone era. Transforms: Communication Media Commerce Social networking 2008 — Global Financial Crisis Largest financial crisis since the Great Depression. Major bank failures occur. Housing markets collapse. Governments conduct large-scale financial interventions. The crisis reshapes global economic policy and public trust in financial institutions. 2010 — Deepwater Horizon Disaster Explosion on an offshore drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico. One of the largest marine oil spills in history. Major environmental and economic consequences follow. 2010s–2020s — United States Foster Care and CPS Failures Numerous state investigations identify serious failures within child welfare systems. Recurring issues include: Missing children Placement failures Inadequate oversight Abuse within foster placements Human trafficking risks Reports from multiple states generate continuing debate over child protection policies and accountability. 2010s–2020s — United Kingdom Grooming Gang Scandals Major child exploitation networks uncovered in: Rotherham Rochdale Oxford Telford Official inquiries find repeated institutional failures by authorities to protect victims. The cases become among the largest child exploitation scandals in modern British history. 2011 — Fukushima Earthquake and tsunami trigger a nuclear disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi plant in Japan. Largest nuclear accident since Chernobyl. Renews worldwide debate regarding nuclear safety. 2011 — Elwha Dam Removal Completed One of the largest dam-removal projects in U.S. history. Restores salmon migration routes and river ecosystems in Washington State. 2011 — Arab Spring Popular uprisings spread across: Tunisia Egypt Libya Syria Yemen Bahrain Governments fall in several countries. Regional instability continues for years. 2013–2016 — Edward Snowden Revelations Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden reveals extensive government surveillance programs. Generates worldwide debate regarding privacy, intelligence operations, and civil liberties. 2014–Present — ISIS Conflict The Islamic State controls large territories in Iraq and Syria. Triggers international military operations and humanitarian crises. Department of Defense Child Abuse Reports Various allegations and investigations involve military childcare facilities and contractors. Cases raise concerns regarding: Child protection Oversight systems Institutional accountability 2020 — COVID-19 Pandemic Global outbreak of COVID-19. Results in: Millions of deaths worldwide Economic disruption Lockdowns Travel restrictions Vaccine campaigns One of the most significant global events of the twenty-first century. 2020s — Israel Safe Haven Allegations and Extradition Controversies Activists and journalists raise concerns regarding alleged difficulties extraditing some accused child sex offenders who relocate to Israel. Several high-profile cases receive international attention, including that of Malka Leifer. The issue generates debate regarding extradition procedures and international law. 2022–Present — Generative AI Era Public release of large-scale AI systems accelerates. Artificial intelligence begins transforming: Search Writing Programming Art Education Research Business operations One of the most significant technological shifts since the rise of the internet. 2022 — Russia–Ukraine War Escalation Russia launches a full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Largest war in Europe since World War II. Major effects on: Global energy markets Food supplies Military alliances International relations 1776–2026 — The United States and War There are three commonly cited ways to measure U.S. military involvement: The Popular Statistic: 90%–93% of U.S. History Spent at War Various military historians, researchers, and commentators have estimated that the United States has been involved in some form of armed conflict, military intervention, occupation, or combat operation for roughly 90% to 93% of its existence. Depending on the methodology used, some calculations conclude that the United States has spent approximately 225 years of its first 250 years engaged in military conflict somewhere in the world, leaving relatively few years without any active military operation. Congressional Research Service (CRS) Statistics The Congressional Research Service has documented hundreds of overseas military actions involving U.S. armed forces. A CRS compilation identified approximately 469 uses of U.S. armed forces abroad between 1798 and 2022, with roughly 251 occurring after 1991. These actions include: • Wars • Occupations • Bombing campaigns • Naval actions • Peacekeeping missions • Rescue operations • Shows of force • Military deployments abroad The CRS figure does not represent 469 wars. It represents documented military actions and interventions. Formal Declarations of War The United States has formally declared war only 11 times in its history, covering five major conflicts: • War of 1812 • Mexican–American War • Spanish–American War • World War I • World War II The last formal declaration of war occurred in 1942 during World War II. Major conflicts such as: • Korean War • Vietnam War • Gulf War • Afghanistan War • Iraq War were conducted without formal declarations of war. 1776–2026 United States existence: ~250 years Formal declarations of war: 11 Major military actions documented by CRS: 469+ Military actions since 1991: 251+ Estimated percentage of U.S. history involving military conflict, intervention, or combat operations: roughly 90% Depending on how war and military intervention are defined, the United States has been involved in military conflict or military operations for roughly 90 percent of its history. Every Country the United States Has Invaded, Bombed, or Staged a Coup In A complete accounting of nearly 400 U.S. military interventions across 80+ countries since 1776 - from the Barbary Wars to the War on Terror. Every invasion, bombing campaign, CIA-backed coup, and covert operation, mapped and documented. Last updated: February 2026 - Data sourced from the Military Intervention Project (Tufts University), Congressional Research Service, CIA declassified documents, and academic studies. ~400Military InterventionsSince 1776 (MIP dataset) 80+Countries TargetedRoughly 1/3 of all nations 200+Post-WWII OperationsHalf of all interventions 34%In Latin AmericaMost targeted region 25%+Post-Cold WarPace accelerating since 1991   By the Numbers: 250 Years of Military Intervention According to the Military Intervention Project (MIP) at Tufts University's Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy - the most comprehensive dataset ever compiled on the subject - the United States has conducted nearly 400 military interventions since 1776. That's roughly one every seven months for 250 years. Half of those interventions occurred after 1950, and more than a quarter have taken place since the end of the Cold War in 1991. The post-9/11 era ranks as the third most militarily active period in U.S. history, behind only the Cold War (1946-1989) and the era of "gunboat diplomacy" (1868-1917). The regional breakdown is striking: 34% of all U.S. interventions have been in Latin America and the Caribbean, 23% in East Asia and the Pacific, 14% in the Middle East and North Africa, and 13% in Europe and Central Asia. Latin America alone has been the target of more than one in three U.S. military interventions in American history. U.S. Military Interventions by Era Source: Military Intervention Project (MIP), Tufts University. Includes invasions, bombing, shows of force, and covert operations.   Interventions by Region (% of Total) Source: MIP dataset. Latin America has been the most frequent target throughout U.S. history.   The Acceleration Problem The U.S. conducted roughly 90 military interventions in its first 170 years (1776-1945). It conducted over 300 in the 80 years since. And unlike earlier eras when shows of force and threats were common, post-9/11 interventions have been overwhelmingly kinetic - actual combat operations, drone strikes, and special operations raids. Major Wars and Large-Scale Invasions Beyond the two World Wars, the United States has fought several major wars involving hundreds of thousands of troops, sustained combat over years, and enormous casualties. The Korean and Vietnam Wars alone killed over 90,000 Americans and millions of locals. The post-9/11 wars in Afghanistan and Iraq consumed over $8 trillion and resulted in an estimated 900,000+ deaths. Major U.S. Wars and Large-Scale Military Campaigns (Post-1945) Country Years Type U.S. Peak Troops U.S. Deaths Est. Total Deaths President(s) Key Details Korea 1950-1953 War 326,000 36,574 2-3 million Truman, Eisenhower Fought North Korea and China to a stalemate; Korea remains divided today Vietnam 1955-1975 War 543,000 58,220 1.3-3.4 million Eisenhower thru Ford Longest war until Afghanistan; U.S. withdrew in 1973, Saigon fell 1975 Laos 1964-1973 Bombing Secret war ~700 200,000+ Johnson, Nixon "Secret war" - 2M+ tons of bombs dropped, more than all of WWII combined Cambodia 1969-1973 Bombing Secret ops - 100,000-500,000 Nixon Secret bombing campaign; destabilization helped Khmer Rouge rise Iraq (Gulf War) 1990-1991 War 540,000 383 20,000-35,000 H.W. Bush Expelled Iraq from Kuwait in 42-day campaign; coalition of 35 nations Afghanistan 2001-2021 War 100,000 2,461 176,000+ Bush thru Biden 20-year war; Taliban retook power within days of U.S. withdrawal Iraq (Invasion) 2003-2011 War 170,000 4,431 185,000-500,000+ Bush, Obama No WMDs found; sectarian civil war followed; ISIS emerged from aftermath   Invasions, Occupations, and the "Banana Wars" From the late 1800s through the 1930s, the U.S. military intervened repeatedly in the Caribbean and Central America to protect American business interests - particularly those of the United Fruit Company. These so-called "Banana Wars" saw Marines occupy Haiti (19 years), the Dominican Republic (8 years), Nicaragua (21 years on and off), and Cuba (multiple times). The pattern continued well into the Cold War era and beyond. U.S. Invasions and Military Occupations (Selected) Country Years Type Duration Context Cuba 1898-1902 Invasion 4 years Spanish-American War; U.S. occupied Cuba, imposed Platt Amendment giving right to intervene Philippines 1899-1913 War 14 years Philippine-American War killed 200,000-1 million Filipinos; U.S. ruled until 1946 Cuba 1906-1909 Occupation 3 years Second U.S. occupation under Governor Magoon Nicaragua 1912-1933 Occupation 21 years Marines occupied repeatedly; fought guerrilla war vs. Sandino Haiti 1915-1934 Occupation 19 years Full military occupation; forced new constitution allowing foreign land ownership Dominican Rep. 1916-1924 Occupation 8 years Marine occupation after 28 revolutions in 50 years Russia 1918-1920 Invasion 2 years 12,000 U.S. troops intervened in Russian Civil War at Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok Mexico 1914-1917 Invasion 3 years Occupation of Veracruz; Pancho Villa Expedition with 10,000 troops Grenada 1983 Invasion Weeks Operation Urgent Fury; 7,600 troops ousted leftist military government Panama 1989-1990 Invasion Weeks 27,000 troops to overthrow Manuel Noriega; 500+ Panamanian civilians killed Somalia 1992-1995 Invasion 3 years "Humanitarian" mission turned into urban warfare; Black Hawk Down incident Haiti 1994-1995 Invasion 1 year 20,000 troops to reinstate President Aristide after military coup The Smedley Butler Quote Marine Major General Smedley Butler, the most decorated Marine of his era, wrote in 1935: "I spent 33 years in the Marines. I helped make Mexico safe for American oil interests. I helped make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys. I helped in the raping of half a dozen Central American republics for the benefit of Wall Street. I helped purify Nicaragua for the International Banking House of Brown Brothers." Countries Bombed by the United States (Post-1945) Since the end of World War II, the United States has bombed at least 30 countries. These range from massive sustained campaigns (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Iraq) to limited strikes (Libya 1986, Sudan 1998) to ongoing drone operations (Yemen, Somalia, Pakistan). The populations of countries bombed by the U.S. since 1945 represent roughly one-third of humanity. Countries Bombed or Struck by the U.S. Since 1945 Country Year(s) Type President Scale & Context China 1945-1946 Bombing Truman Post-WWII support for Nationalists in Chinese Civil War Korea 1950-1953 Bombing Truman, Eisenhower 635,000 tons of bombs + 32,557 tons of napalm; every major city destroyed Guatemala 1954 Bombing Eisenhower CIA planes bombed Guatemala City during coup against Arbenz Indonesia 1958 Bombing Eisenhower CIA-backed bombing of government targets during rebel uprising Cuba 1961 Bombing Kennedy CIA B-26 bombers struck Cuban airfields during Bay of Pigs invasion Vietnam 1961-1975 Bombing Kennedy thru Ford 7.5 million tons of bombs - more than all of WWII across all theaters Laos 1964-1973 Bombing Johnson, Nixon 2 million+ tons; 580,000 bombing missions; most heavily bombed country per capita in history Cambodia 1969-1973 Bombing Nixon Operation Menu/Freedom Deal; 2.7 million tons; Khmer Rouge rose from chaos Lebanon 1983-1984 Naval Reagan Battleship New Jersey shelled positions after Marine barracks bombing Libya 1986 Bombing Reagan Operation El Dorado Canyon; strikes on Tripoli and Benghazi Iran 1987-1988 Naval Reagan Operation Praying Mantis; sank Iranian naval vessels; shot down civilian airliner killing 290 Iraq 1991-2003 Bombing H.W. Bush thru Bush Desert Storm (88,500 tons in 43 days) + 12 years of no-fly zone enforcement strikes Kuwait 1991 Bombing H.W. Bush Massive air campaign to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation Bosnia 1994-1995 Bombing Clinton NATO air strikes against Bosnian Serb positions Sudan 1998 Bombing Clinton Cruise missiles struck Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory (falsely claimed to be WMD site) Afghanistan 1998, 2001-2021 Bombing Clinton thru Biden 1998 strikes on al-Qaeda camps; then 20 years of sustained bombing Yugoslavia/Serbia 1999 Bombing Clinton 78-day NATO air campaign; 38,000 combat sorties; struck Belgrade Pakistan 2004-2018 Drone Bush thru Trump 400+ CIA drone strikes; 2,500-4,000 killed including up to 1,000 civilians Somalia 2007-present Drone Bush thru present Ongoing drone strikes and special ops against al-Shabaab Yemen 2002-present Drone Bush thru present Drone strikes against AQAP + 2024-25 strikes against Houthi targets Libya 2011, 2015-2019 Bombing Obama, Trump NATO air campaign toppled Gaddafi; followed by strikes against ISIS in Libya Syria 2014-present Bombing Obama thru present Sustained air campaign vs. ISIS; plus direct strikes on Syrian military (2017, 2018) Iraq 2014-present Bombing Obama thru present Return to Iraq to fight ISIS; plus strikes on Iran-backed militias Iran 2025, 2026 Bombing Trump Joint US-Israel strikes (Operation Epic Fury); targets in Tehran, Isfahan, Qom, Karaj, Kermanshah - nuclear, military, and leadership sites Tonnage Comparison: U.S. Bombs Dropped by Conflict Sources: Air Force Historical Research Agency, various. Includes all ordnance types.   Laos: The Most Bombed Country on Earth Between 1964 and 1973, the U.S. dropped over 2 million tons of ordnance on Laos - equivalent to a planeload of bombs every 8 minutes, 24 hours a day, for 9 years. That's more than was dropped on Germany and Japan combined during WWII. Up to 30% of the bombs didn't detonate and remain in the ground today, killing an estimated 50 Laotians per year. The population of Laos at the time was roughly 3 million. CIA Coups, Regime Change, and Covert Operations The CIA has publicly acknowledged involvement in at least seven successful regime changes. But the full list of confirmed and strongly suspected U.S.-backed coups, assassination attempts, and destabilization campaigns is considerably longer. During the Cold War, the CIA toppled democratically elected governments, propped up dictators, trained death squads, and funded insurgencies across Latin America, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Several of these operations had catastrophic long-term consequences. The 1953 coup in Iran led directly to the 1979 Islamic Revolution. The 1954 Guatemala coup triggered a 36-year civil war. The destabilization of Cambodia helped the Khmer Rouge seize power, leading to the deaths of 1.5-2 million people. CIA-Backed Coups, Regime Changes, and Destabilization Campaigns Country Year Type CIA Codename Target / Leader Overthrown What Followed Syria 1949 Coup - Elected govt; installed Husni al-Za'im First of many Syrian coups; Za'im himself overthrown months later Iran 1953 Coup TPAJAX PM Mohammad Mosaddegh Shah restored to absolute power; 1979 Islamic Revolution followed Guatemala 1954 Coup PBSuccess Pres. Jacobo Arbenz Series of military dictators; 36-year civil war killing 200,000 Indonesia 1958 Covert - Pres. Sukarno (failed) CIA backed Permesta rebels; operation exposed and failed Congo 1960-1965 Coup - PM Patrice Lumumba CIA sent poison for assassination; Mobutu installed, ruled 32 years Cuba 1961 Invasion - Fidel Castro (failed) Bay of Pigs; 8 CIA assassination plots; 60+ year embargo Dominican Rep. 1961 Coup - Dictator Rafael Trujillo CIA provided weapons to assassins; democratic elections followed South Vietnam 1963 Coup - Pres. Ngo Dinh Diem U.S. gave green light to coup; Diem killed; Vietnam War escalated Ecuador 1963 Coup - Pres. Arosemena Military junta installed; banned Communist Party Brazil 1964 Coup Brother Sam Pres. Joao Goulart 21 years of military dictatorship Bolivia 1964 Covert - Pres. Victor Paz Estenssoro Military junta; CIA later tracked and assisted killing of Che Guevara (1967) Indonesia 1965-1967 Covert - Pres. Sukarno CIA provided kill lists; Suharto's anti-communist purge killed 500,000-1 million Greece 1967 Coup - Democratic government Military junta ("the Colonels") ruled until 1974 Chile 1970-1973 Coup FUBELT Pres. Salvador Allende Nixon ordered economy to "scream"; Pinochet dictatorship killed 3,000+ Afghanistan 1979-1989 Proxy Cyclone Soviet-backed government $3B+ to mujahideen; some fighters later formed al-Qaeda and Taliban Nicaragua 1981-1990 Proxy - Sandinista government CIA trained Contras; mined harbors; Iran-Contra scandal Libya 2011 Bombing - Muammar Gaddafi NATO bombing led to regime collapse; Libya became a failed state Syria 2012-2017 Covert Timber Sycamore Pres. Bashar al-Assad CIA armed ~10,000 rebels at $1B/year; Assad survived until 2024 rebel offensive U.S. Interventions by Type (Post-1945) Categorized from MIP data, CRS reports, and CIA declassified documents.   The War on Terror and the Drone Age Since September 11, 2001, the United States has conducted military operations in at least 24 countries under the Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF). This single piece of legislation, passed three days after 9/11, has been used to justify operations in countries the original authors never imagined, from Niger to the Philippines to Cameroon. The drone program, operated by both the CIA and the U.S. military, has launched strikes in at least seven countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, Libya, Iraq, and Syria. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism estimates that U.S. drone strikes have killed between 8,858 and 16,901 people across Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, and Afghanistan alone, including 910-2,200 civilians and 283-454 children. Meanwhile, U.S. Special Operations forces are deployed in approximately three-quarters of the world's countries at any given time - roughly 150 nations. As researchers Kushi and Toft noted: "While U.S. ambassadors are operating in one-third of the world's countries, U.S. special operators and forces are active in three-fourths." Countries with U.S. Military Operations Post-9/11 Country Type of Operation Years Active Key Details Afghanistan War 2001-2021 Full-scale invasion and 20-year occupation; $2.3 trillion spent Iraq War 2003-2011, 2014- Invasion, occupation, then return to fight ISIS; $3 trillion spent Pakistan Drone 2004-2018 400+ drone strikes in tribal areas; Osama bin Laden killed in Abbottabad (2011) Somalia Drone 2007-present Drone strikes, special ops raids, and proxy forces vs. al-Shabaab Yemen Drone 2002-present Drone war vs. AQAP; then strikes vs. Houthis during Red Sea crisis (2024-25) Syria Bombing 2014-present Anti-ISIS air campaign + covert rebel training + direct strikes on Syrian military Libya Bombing 2011, 2015-19 NATO air war toppled Gaddafi; subsequent strikes against ISIS in Libya Philippines Covert 2002-present Special ops "advisors" vs. Abu Sayyaf and ISIS-aligned groups Niger Covert 2013-2024 Drone base; 4 Green Berets killed in 2017 ambush; expelled after 2023 coup Cameroon Covert 2015-present Special ops support for counter-Boko Haram operations Iran Bombing 2025, 2026 Joint US-Israel strikes on nuclear sites, military infrastructure, and leadership targets; Trump declared "major combat operations" and called for regime change The Costs of the Post-9/11 Wars According to Brown University's "Costs of War" project, the post-9/11 wars have cost an estimated $8 trillion in direct spending and future obligations (including veteran care). An estimated 900,000+ people have been killed, including 387,000+ civilians. Over 38 million people have been displaced from their homes - more than any conflict since WWII except the partition of India. The War on Terror and the Drone Age Since September 11, 2001, the United States has conducted military operations in at least 24 countries under the Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF). This single piece of legislation, passed three days after 9/11, has been used to justify operations in countries the original authors never imagined, from Niger to the Philippines to Cameroon. The drone program, operated by both the CIA and the U.S. military, has launched strikes in at least seven countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, Libya, Iraq, and Syria. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism estimates that U.S. drone strikes have killed between 8,858 and 16,901 people across Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, and Afghanistan alone, including 910-2,200 civilians and 283-454 children. Meanwhile, U.S. Special Operations forces are deployed in approximately three-quarters of the world's countries at any given time - roughly 150 nations. As researchers Kushi and Toft noted: "While U.S. ambassadors are operating in one-third of the world's countries, U.S. special operators and forces are active in three-fourths." The Complete Country List: Every Nation Targeted Below is the most comprehensive list we can compile of every country where the U.S. has conducted a military intervention - defined as an invasion, bombing, occupation, naval engagement, coup, covert destabilization campaign, proxy war, or drone strike. Countries are listed alphabetically with the type(s) of intervention and time period. Complete List of Countries Where the U.S. Has Intervened Militarily # Country Type(s) Period(s) Region 1 Afghanistan War Proxy 1979-89, 1998, 2001-2021 Central Asia 2 Angola Proxy 1975-1991 Africa 3 Argentina Covert 1890, 1976 (backed junta) Latin America 4 Bolivia Coup 1964, 1967 Latin America 5 Bosnia Bombing 1994-1995 Europe 6 Brazil Coup 1964 Latin America 7 Cambodia Bombing 1969-1975 East Asia 8 Cameroon Covert 2015-present Africa 9 Chad Covert 1983, 2006-present Africa 10 Chile Coup 1970-1973 Latin America 11 China Bombing Naval 1845-1866, 1945-46, 1950s East Asia 12 Colombia Covert 1901, 1989-present Latin America 13 Congo/Zaire Coup 1960-1965 Africa 14 Costa Rica Covert 1955 Latin America 15 Cuba Invasion Bombing Covert 1898-1902, 1906-09, 1961, 1962 Caribbean 16 Dominican Republic Invasion Occupation Coup 1903, 1914, 1916-24, 1961, 1965 Caribbean 17 Ecuador Coup 1960-1963 Latin America 18 Egypt Covert 1956, 1957 Middle East 19 El Salvador Proxy 1980-1992 Latin America 20 Fiji Naval 1855, 1858 Pacific 21 Germany Occupation 1945-present (bases) Europe 22 Ghana Coup 1966 Africa 23 Greece Proxy Coup 1947-50, 1967 Europe 24 Grenada Invasion 1983 Caribbean 25 Guatemala Coup Bombing 1954, 1960-1996 Latin America 26 Guyana Covert 1953-1964 Latin America 27 Haiti Invasion Occupation 1891, 1914-34, 1994-95, 2004 Caribbean 28 Honduras Invasion Covert 1903, 1907, 1983-89 Latin America 29 Indonesia Bombing Covert 1958, 1965-67 East Asia 30 Iran Coup Naval Bombing 1953, 1987-88, 2025, 2026 Middle East 31 Iraq War Coup Bombing 1960, 1963, 1991-present Middle East 32 Italy Covert 1948 Europe 33 Japan Occupation 1945-present (bases) East Asia 34 Korea (North) War Bombing 1950-1953 East Asia 35 Korea (South) Occupation 1945-present (bases) East Asia 36 Kuwait Bombing 1991 Middle East 37 Laos Bombing Covert 1958-73 East Asia 38 Lebanon Invasion Naval 1958, 1982-84 Middle East 39 Libya Bombing 1981, 1986, 1989, 2011, 2015-19 North Africa 40 Mexico Invasion 1836, 1846-48, 1914-17 Latin America 41 Mozambique Covert 2021-present Africa 42 Nicaragua Invasion Occupation Proxy 1854, 1909-33, 1981-90 Latin America 43 Niger Drone Covert 2013-2024 Africa 44 Pakistan Drone 2004-2018 South Asia 45 Panama Invasion 1846, 1856, 1903, 1958, 1989 Latin America 46 Peru Naval 1835-36 Latin America 47 Philippines War Covert 1898-1913, 2002-present East Asia 48 Puerto Rico Invasion 1898 Caribbean 49 Russia Invasion 1918-1920 Europe/Asia 50 Samoa Naval 1888-1899 Pacific 51 Serbia/Yugoslavia Bombing 1993-95, 1999 Europe 52 Somalia Invasion Drone 1992-95, 2007-present Africa 53 South Vietnam War Coup 1955-75 East Asia 54 Sudan Bombing 1998 Africa 55 Sumatra Naval 1832, 1838 East Asia 56 Syria Coup Bombing Covert 1949, 1957, 2012-present Middle East 57 Tibet/China Covert 1955-1970s East Asia 58 Tripoli (Libya) Naval 1801-1805 North Africa 59 Turkey Naval 1849, 1922 Middle East 60 Uruguay Naval 1855, 1858, 1868 Latin America 61 Venezuela Covert 2002, 2019-20 Latin America 62 Yemen Drone Bombing 2002-present Middle East A Note on This List This list is almost certainly incomplete. The U.S. government has acknowledged that its covert operations - particularly those conducted by Special Operations forces under secretive authorities like Section 127e and Section 1202 - often evade public documentation. The MIP researchers at Tufts University themselves note that their post-9/11 count is "an undercount." Additionally, this list excludes purely economic warfare (sanctions) and diplomatic coercion, which would add many more countries. The Costs of the Post-9/11 Wars According to Brown University's "Costs of War" project, the post-9/11 wars have cost an estimated $8 trillion in direct spending and future obligations (including veteran care). An estimated 900,000+ people have been killed, including 387,000+ civilians. Over 38 million people have been displaced from their homes - more than any conflict since WWII except the partition of India. Interventions by President Some presidents dramatically escalated U.S. military interventionism, while others pulled back. The post-WWII pattern shows a ratchet effect - each era tends to be more interventionist than the last, with "peacetime" presidents still maintaining operations started by their predecessors. Notable New Interventions Launched by Post-WWII President Counts new countries entered or new major military campaigns initiated. Does not count inherited operations.   The Long Shadow: Consequences and Blowback One of the most striking patterns in U.S. foreign intervention is "blowback" - the unintended long-term consequences that come back to haunt American interests. The CIA's own analysts coined the term. The 1953 Iran coup created the conditions for the 1979 Islamic Revolution and the hostage crisis. The CIA's arming of Afghan mujahideen in the 1980s helped create al-Qaeda and the Taliban. The 2003 Iraq invasion created the power vacuum from which ISIS emerged. The 2011 Libya bombing turned a functioning (if authoritarian) state into a failed state that became a gateway for migration to Europe and a haven for extremist groups. And on February 28, 2026 - 73 years after the CIA overthrew Iran's democratically elected prime minister - the U.S. launched "major combat operations" against Iran in what President Trump explicitly framed as regime change, telling Iranians to "take over your government" once the bombing was finished. As Al Jazeera's Alan Fisher observed: "They've done it before. This time, they're doing it with weapons and bombs rather than covertly through the CIA." Iran retaliated with strikes on U.S. bases across the Gulf, widening the conflict to at least six additional countries. A 2023 study published in the journal Public Choice found that CIA-sponsored regime changes in Latin America resulted in a 10% reduction in per-capita income within five years and massive declines in democratic governance that persisted for at least six years. The researchers from Berger et al. concluded that these interventions had "serious political, economic, and civil repercussions" that should be counted against any perceived strategic benefits. By the Numbers: The Human Cost Estimates vary widely, but researchers have attempted to tally the civilian toll of U.S. military interventions since 1945. The most conservative estimates place the figure at several million deaths. Some researchers, including James Lucas of the website WarIsACrime.org, have estimated that U.S. military interventions have been responsible for between 20 and 30 million deaths since the end of World War II, though this figure is debated. What is not debated is that the scale of U.S. military intervention across the globe is historically unprecedented for any single nation during peacetime. Sources & References Military Intervention Project (MIP) - Kushi, S. & Toft, M.D. "Introducing the Military Intervention Project: A New Dataset on US Military Interventions, 1776-2019." Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2023. Congressional Research Service - "Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad, 1798-2024" (RL30172, updated regularly). CIA Declassified Documents - Historical Review Program, including TPAJAX (Iran), PBSuccess (Guatemala), and FUBELT (Chile) collections. Brown University - Watson Institute "Costs of War" Project (costs, casualties, and displacement figures for post-9/11 wars). Bureau of Investigative Journalism - Drone warfare databases (Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, Afghanistan). Foreign Policy - "Mapped: The 7 Governments the U.S. Has Overthrown" (Stuster, 2013). History.com - "10 Times America Helped Overthrow a Foreign Government" (2022). Wikipedia - "Foreign interventions by the United States," "Timeline of United States military operations," "United States involvement in regime change." Zoltan Grossman, Evergreen State College - "From Wounded Knee to Syria: U.S. Military Interventions Since 1890." U.S. Air Force Historical Research Agency - Bombing tonnage data by conflict. Berger, D. et al. "The consequences of CIA-sponsored regime change in Latin America." Public Choice, 2023. Global Policy Forum / Archive.org - "US Interventions" compilation. Source:  Every Country the United States Has Invaded, Bombed, or Staged a Coup In | DaveManuel.com The USA  "Americans believe that the United States of America became a separate country following its War of Independence against the British in 1783.   However, what happened was the setting up of the USA as a corporation subject to British maritime law. If you don't believe me then when you watch Obama speaking what do you think the gold border around your flag signifies?   So, if the US is just a corporation, not a country where's the evidence? Should we look for the Queen signing off acts of Parliament which automatically apply to the USA -   legislation.gov.uk/uksi… - it isn't the only one.   The one above was the Queen dictating social security legislation to the IRS. Still think you're independent."  IRS Forces U.S. Citizens To Pay A Percentage Of Their Taxes To The Queen Of The UK Deep State – Political Vel Craft  References USA History   UNITED STATES is a Corporation - There are Two Constitutions - Sovereignty    Federal Reserve - The Enemy of America    A history lesson for Americans. You're still British. – Patriots for Truth    bankruptcyofus.pdf    War and Emergency Powers       Media Release: The People Are the Enemy    "Since March 9, 1933, the United States has been in a state of declared national emergency Powers listed:    Seize property     Organize and control production     Seize commodities     Assign military forces abroad     Institute martial law     Seize transportation     Seize communications     Regulate private enterprise     Restrict travel     Control lives of citizens     (Source attributed in text: Senate Report 93-549)    14th Amendment | AntiCorruption Society       The IRS is not a US government agency.  It is an agency of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Diversified Metal Products v I.R.S et al.  CV-93-405E-EJE U.S.D.C.D.I., Public Law 94-564, Senate report 94-1148 pg. 5967, Reorganization Plan No. 26, Public Law 102-391).      The IMF (International Monetary Fund) is an agency of the U.N.     (Black's Law Dictionary 6th Ed. page 816)        The United States has NOT had a Treasury since 1921 (41 Stat. Ch 214 page 654)        The U.S. Treasury is now the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Presidential Documents Volume 24-No. 4 page 113, 22 U.S.C. 285-2887)        The United States does not have any employees because there is no longer a United States! No more reorganizations. After over 200 years of bankruptcy it is finally over. (Executive Order 12803)        The FCC, CIA, FBI, NASA and all of the other alphabet gangs were never  part of the U.S. government, even though the "U.S. Government" held stock in the agencies. (U.S. v Strang, 254 US491 Lewis v. US, 680 F.2nd, 1239)        Social Security Numbers are issued by the U.N. through the IMF (International Monetary Fund). The application for a Social Security Number is the SS5 Form. The Department of the Treasury (IMF) issues the SS5 forms and not the Social Security Administration. The new SS5 forms do not state who publishes them while the old form states they are "Department of the Treasury". (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111 Subpart B. 422.103 (b))        There are NO Judicial Courts in America and have not been since 1789. Judges do not enforce Statutes and Codes. Executive Administrators enforce Statutes and Codes. (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428, 1 Stat 138-178)        There have NOT been any judges in America since 1789. There have just been administrators.  (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428 1 Stat. 138-178)        According to GATT (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) you MUST have a Social Security number. (House Report (103-826)        New York City is defined in Federal Regulations as the United Nations. Rudolph Guiliani stated on C-Span that "New York City is the capital of the World." For once, he told the truth. (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111, subpart B 44.103 (b) (2) (2) )        Social Security is not insurance or a contract, nor is there a Trust Fund.  (Helvering v. Davis 301 US 619 Steward Co. v. Davis 301 US 548)        Your Social Security check comes directly from the IMF (International Monetary Fund), which is an agency of the United Nations. (It says "U.S. Department of Treasury" at the top left corner, which again is part of the U.N. as pointed out above)        You own NO property!! Slaves can't own property. Read carefully the Deed to the property you think is yours.  You are listed as a TENANT. (Senate Document 43, 73rd Congress 1st Session)        The most powerful court in America is NOT the United States Supreme court, but rather the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. (42 PA. C.S.A. 502)        The King of England financially backed both sides of the American Revolutionary War..   (Treaty of Versailles-July 16, 1782 Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80)        You CANNOT use the U.S. Constitution to defend yourself because you are NOT a party to it!  The U.S. Constitution applies to the CORPORATION OF THE UNITED STATES, a privately owned and operated corporation (headquartered out of Washington, DC) much like IBM (International Business Machines, Microsoft, et al) and NOT to the people of the sovereign Republic of the united States of America.  (Padelford Fay & Co. v The Mayor and Alderman of the City of Savannah 14 Georgia 438, 520)        America is a British Colony.  The United States is a corporation, not a land mass and it existed before the Revolutionary War and the British Troops did not leave until 1796 (Republica v. Sweers 1 Dallas 43, Treaty of Commerce 8 Stat 116, Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80, IRS Publication 6209, Articles of Association October 20, 1774)        Britain is owned by the Vatican. (Treaty of 1213)        The Pope can abolish any law in the United States (Elements of Ecclesiastical Law Vol. 1, 53-54)        A 1040 Form is for tribute paid to Britain (IRS Publication 6209)        The Pope claims to own the entire planet through the laws of conquest and discovery.  (Papal Bulls of 1495 & 1493)        The Pope has ordered the genocide and enslavement of millions of people.(Papal Bulls of 1455 & 1493)        The Pope's laws are obligatory on everyone.  (Bened. XIV., De Syn. Dioec, lib, ix, c. vii, n. 4. Prati, 1844 Syllabus Prop 28, 29, 44)        We are slaves and own absolutely nothing, NOT even what we think are our children.  (Tillman vs. Roberts 108 So. 62, Van Koten vs. Van Koten 154 N.E. 146, Senate Document 438 73rd Congress 1st Session, Wynehammer v. People 13 N.Y. REP 378, 481)        Military dictator George Washington divided up the States (Estates) in to Districts  (Messages and papers of the Presidents Volume 1 page 99 1828 Dictionary of Estate)      "The People" does NOT include you and me. (Barron vs. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore 32 U.S. 243)       It is NOT the duty of the police to protect you. Their job is to protect THE CORPORATION and arrest code breakers. (SAPP vs. Tallahassee, 348 So. 2nd. 363, REiff vs. City of Phila. 477 F. 1262, Lynch vs. NC Dept. of Justice 376 S.E. 2nd. 247)      Every thing in the "United States" is up for sale: bridges, roads, water, schools, hospitals, prisons, airports, etc, etc… Did anybody take time to check who bought Klamath Lake?? (Executive Order 12803)        "We are human capital" (Executive Order 13037)  The world cabal makes money off of the use of your signatures on mortgages, car loans, credit cards, your social security number, etc.         The U.N. – United Nations – has financed the operations of the United States government (the corporation of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) for over 50 years (U.S. Department of Treasury is part of the U.N. see above) and now owns every man, woman and child in America.       The U.N. also holds all of the land of America in Fee Simple.   The good news is we don't have to fulfill "our" fictitious obligations. You can discharge a fictitious obligation with another's fictitious obligation.     Source: Stop The Pirates: These documents are NOT secret! They ARE a matter of Public Record.     

"A mark once tied to luck, harmony, and peace did not suddenly wake up evil one morning. Somewhere along the line, somebody put it on trial, rewrote its identity, and turned it into a weapon."   This episode follows one of the most remarkable historical journeys in the modern world, beginning with the expulsion of the Sephardic Jews from Spain in 1492 and tracing the development of global trade, migration, empire, and power across four centuries. From the Ottoman Empire and Amsterdam's rise as a commercial hub to the East India Company, the Sassoon merchant dynasty, and the emergence of modern banking and global commerce, the timeline reveals how seemingly separate historical events became interconnected. Along the way, the story examines the movement of people, capital, ideas, and institutions that helped shape the modern world. The episode also explores the transformation of symbols, identities, and political movements during periods of enormous social change. From the ancient origins of the swastika and the evolution of the term "Aryan" to the rise of nationalism in Europe, listeners will follow the chain of events that ultimately reshaped the meaning of some of history's most recognizable symbols. By connecting Spain, the Ottoman Empire, Amsterdam, the Sassoons, Chicago immigration, imperial trade networks, and the political upheavals of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, this episode offers a broad historical investigation into how migration, empire, commerce, and ideology combined to create the world we know today. Music:  Don McLean - American Pie (Lyric Video) Swastika - Wikipedia The Swastika, An Ancient Symbol Of Prosperity, Struggles To Overcome Nazi Connections | HuffPost Religion History of the 12,000-Year-Old Swastika: Origin, Meaning and Symbolism | by nothing but beautiful | My Bookmark | Medium Sassoon family - Wikipedia Nazi Germany's Fascination With Ancient India: The Case Of Heinrich Himmler | IBTimes Jews, Opium and the Kimono: Story of the Jews in the Far East: Ezra Yehezkel-Shaked: 9789650901660: Amazon.com: Books The greatest drug kingpin in history was an Orthodox Jew who attributed his business success to his careful observance of Jewish law - Luke Ford The Rise and Fall of the Sassoons | The India Forum The Sassoon Family | Trent Park House of Secrets The Sassoons are having a moment. Here's why that matters. - Jewish Telegraphic Agency Vidal Sassoon's adopted son reveals for the first time how drink, drugs - and a weird obsession with looks - drove them apart | Daily Mail Online   How to Find Hidden Cameras with Your Phone Find Hidden Cameras Instantly After Uvalde, Texas Put Cops In Schools. They Brutalized Students. The Dark World Of Celebrity Trans Kids Do you have a psychopath in your life?  The best way to find out is read my book.  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life4 Support is Appreciated: Support the Show – Psychopath In Your Life Tune in: Podcast Links – Psychopath In Your Life Download Pods here:   TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life My old discussion forum with last 10 years of victim stories, is back online.  Psychopath Victim Support Community | Forums powered by UBB.threads™ Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life TIMELINE  Spain, Sephardic Migration, Ottoman Networks, Amsterdam, the East India Company, and the Sassoon's  Before 1492  For centuries, the Iberian Peninsula was divided between Christian kingdoms in the north and Muslim states in the south.  Christians, Muslims, and Jews all lived on the peninsula, though not always peacefully.  The Catholic Church had been present in Spain for centuries, but Spain was not ruled directly by the Pope.  1469  Ferdinand II of Aragon marries Isabella I of Castile.  The two largest Christian kingdoms in Spain become politically united.  The couple later become known as the Catholic Monarchs.  1478  The Spanish Inquisition is established.  Although approved by the Pope, it is largely controlled by the Spanish monarchy.  The Inquisition becomes both a religious institution and an instrument of state power.  January 2, 1492  Granada falls.  The last Muslim kingdom in Spain is defeated.  For the first time, nearly the entire Iberian Peninsula is under Christian rule.  The Spanish Crown now possesses the military and political power to pursue greater religious and political uniformity throughout the kingdom.  March 31, 1492  The Alhambra Decree is issued.  Spain orders Jews to convert or leave.  Large Sephardic communities begin relocating to the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, Italy, Portugal, and the Netherlands.  August 1492  Thousands of Sephardic Jews depart Spain.  August 3, 1492  Christopher Columbus sails west.  October 12, 1492  Columbus reaches the Americas.  What Changed After 1492?  Before 1492, Spain was religiously mixed. Christians, Muslims, and Jews all lived throughout the peninsula. Political authority was divided among competing kingdoms.  After 1492, the monarchy increasingly pursues one kingdom, one crown, and one faith.  Roman Catholicism becomes increasingly tied to Spanish national identity.  Why 1492 Matters  In a single year, Granada falls, Jews are expelled, and Columbus sails.  Spain simultaneously begins religious consolidation at home and imperial expansion abroad.  This becomes the launching point for many of the later stories in this timeline: Sephardic migration into the Ottoman Empire, growth of Jewish communities in Istanbul, Smyrna, Salonica, and Baghdad, Amsterdam as a refuge and commercial center, Brownists migration to Amsterdam and Leiden, Sabbatai Zevi's movement, the rise of the East India Company, and the later emergence of the Sassoon family within Ottoman and British trade networks.  1499  The Crown begins issuing major restrictions on Romani populations.  Authorities order them to settle permanently, work under recognized masters, and abandon traditional itinerant lifestyles.  This begins centuries of assimilation campaigns.  1500–1502  Forced conversions begin for many Muslims in Spain.  The Crown increasingly pressures religious minorities to conform.  Spain simultaneously deals with Jews, Conversos, Muslims, Moriscos, and Romani populations.  The monarchy increasingly seeks a unified Catholic kingdom.  Ottoman Expansion and Sephardic Migration  The Ottoman Empire absorbs large numbers of Sephardic Jewish migrants.  Major Jewish centers develop in Constantinople, Istanbul, Smyrna, Izmir, Salonica, Aleppo, Cairo, and Baghdad.  Jewish family, commercial, and religious networks expand across the Mediterranean.  1534  The Ottoman Empire captures Baghdad.  Baghdad becomes part of the Ottoman imperial system.  The ancestors of the Sassoon family are believed to have already been part of Baghdad's Jewish community.  Late 1500s  Amsterdam emerges as a major commercial center.  Religious refugees begin arriving from across Europe.  Sephardic Jewish communities become increasingly visible there.  1580s–1600s  Brownists emerge in England.  They are led by Robert Browne.  They reject the authority of the Church of England.  1600  The East India Company is chartered.  England begins building a global trade empire.  1602  The Dutch East India Company is formed.  Amsterdam becomes one of the world's most important commercial and financial centers.  1608  Brownists flee England and settle in Amsterdam.  Amsterdam now contains Sephardic Jewish refugees, Protestant dissenters, merchants, political exiles, and international traders.  1609  Many Brownists relocate to Leiden.  1609–1614  Spain expels large numbers of Moriscos.  Hundreds of thousands leave Spain for North Africa and other regions.  1609–1620  The Leiden congregation develops.  Some remain permanently in the Netherlands.  Others prepare for migration to America.  1620  A portion of the Leiden congregation boards the Mayflower.  They establish Plymouth Colony.  Many Brownists remain in Europe.  1626  Sabbatai Zevi is born in Smyrna.  He grows up in an Ottoman port city connected to Mediterranean and European trade routes.  1650s  Trade expands rapidly between London, Amsterdam, Venice, Constantinople, Smyrna, Aleppo, and India.  Communication networks become increasingly sophisticated.  1665  Nathan of Gaza proclaims Zevi the Messiah.  News spreads rapidly through Jewish communities in the Ottoman Empire, Amsterdam, Germany, Italy, Poland-Lithuania, and North Africa.  The episode reveals extensive Jewish communication networks already operating across Europe and the Middle East.  1666  Zevi converts to Islam.  His movement fractures.  The event remains one of the most important episodes in Jewish history.  Late 1600s  Jewish communities remain active throughout Baghdad, Smyrna, Salonica, Constantinople, Cairo, Aleppo, and Amsterdam.  The communication and family networks remain intact.  1700  The East India Company evolves beyond trade.  It increasingly exercises military and political power in India.  1749  Great Gypsy Round-up.  Spanish authorities conduct a mass operation against Romani communities. Families are separated. Large numbers are detained. The effort ultimately fails and is gradually abandoned.  1757  Battle of Plassey.  The East India Company gains effective control over Bengal.  1765  The East India Company gains taxation authority.  It now controls trade, revenue collection, administration, and military forces.  1792  David Sassoon is born in Baghdad.  At this point, Baghdad has been Ottoman for over 250 years, Jewish communities have existed there for centuries, and the East India Company dominates much of India.  1832  David Sassoon leaves Baghdad for Bombay.  This places him directly inside the commercial system built during East India Company expansion.  1833  The East India Company's China trade monopoly ends.  Private merchant families gain greater opportunities.  The Sassoons begin expanding rapidly.  1839–1842  First Opium War.  China is forced open to additional foreign trade.  The Sassoon commercial network expands throughout Asia.  1858  The British Crown takes direct control of India.  East India Company rule ends.  Its trade infrastructure remains.  Late 1800s  The Sassoons become one of the world's most powerful merchant families.  Operations span Bombay, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and London.  1880–1914  Modern communications accelerate globalization through railroads, steamships, telegraphs, and international banking.  Jewish communities are documented throughout Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, and the United States.  1914  World War I begins.  At this point, the Ottoman Empire still exists, the Sassoons are internationally known, and Jewish populations throughout Europe and the Middle East are well documented.  Networks visible during the Zevi period have evolved into modern institutions, newspapers, charities, businesses, and political organizations.  The Through-Line  1492: Spain consolidates, expels Jews, and launches Atlantic expansion.  1500–1666: Ottoman Jewish communities grow; Amsterdam becomes a refuge and trade hub; Zevi reveals the scope of Jewish communication networks.  1600–1858: The East India Company builds a trade-and-empire system linking Britain, India, the Middle East, and China.  1792–1914: The Sassoons rise from Baghdad to Bombay and beyond, operating inside a global system built on centuries of migration, trade, empire, and communication.  1914: Many of the networks that began taking shape after 1492 are now part of a fully interconnected global world.  1916  The secret Sykes–Picot Agreement is negotiated between Britain and France.  It proposes dividing much of the Ottoman Middle East into spheres of influence after World War I.  Many later borders roughly follow this framework.  Spain expels Sephardim.   Ottoman cities absorb them.   Amsterdam becomes a refuge and trade hub.   The East India Company connects Europe, the Middle East, India, and China.   Families such as the Sassoons move from Baghdad to Bombay.   Ashkenazi populations grow in Eastern Europe.   Millions migrate to America.   Chicago becomes a major destination.   Fires, wars, border changes, and lost censuses break parts of the paper trail.   Before 1492  Sephardic Jews  Lived primarily in Spain and Portugal.   "Sepharad" is the Hebrew word traditionally associated with Spain.   Spoke forms of medieval Spanish that later evolved into Ladino.   Had lived in Iberia since Roman and early medieval times.   Ashkenazi Jews  Lived primarily in the German-speaking lands along the Rhine River.   Centers included cities such as Mainz, Worms, and Speyer.   Later expanded into Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine.   Spoke Yiddish, a language with strong German roots.   What Was Happening to Ashkenazim Around 1492?  They were dealing with their own expulsions and migrations.  1290 Jews expelled from England.  1306  Large-scale expulsions from France.  1348–1351 During the Black Death, many Jewish communities in German lands were attacked after being falsely blamed for the plague.  1400s  Many Ashkenazi Jews move eastward into Poland and Lithuania.  Those rulers often offered legal protections because Jewish merchants, financiers, and artisans were economically valuable.  By 1492  The largest and fastest-growing Ashkenazi communities were increasingly found in:  Poland   Lithuania   Bohemia   Parts of the Holy Roman Empire   while the Sephardic center remained in Spain.  After 1492  A major divergence occurs.  Sephardic Jews  Move into the Ottoman Empire.   Settle in cities such as Istanbul, Salonica, Izmir, Aleppo, and later Baghdad.   Become prominent in Mediterranean and Ottoman trade networks.   Ashkenazi Jews  Continue expanding in Eastern Europe.   By the 1700s and 1800s, Poland-Lithuania and neighboring regions contain the largest Jewish population in the world.   A Useful Way to Picture It  Around 1492 there were essentially two major Jewish geographic centers:  Western / Mediterranean World  Spain   Portugal   North Africa   Ottoman ports   This was primarily the Sephardic sphere.  Central and Eastern Europe  German states   Poland   Lithuania   Bohemia   Hungary   This was primarily the Ashkenazi sphere.  So when Spain expelled the Sephardic Jews, the Ashkenazim were mostly hundreds or even thousands of miles away in the German and East European world. The expulsion directly transformed the Sephardic world, while the Ashkenazi population was simultaneously growing in Central and Eastern Europe. By the late 1800s, the demographic center of world Jewry had shifted heavily toward the Ashkenazi communities of Eastern Europe, which is why so many Jewish immigrants arriving in places like New York City and Chicago between 1880 and 1924 were Ashkenazi rather than Sephardic.  Why Louisiana/New Orleans Was Important  During the 1800s, New Orleans was:  one of America's largest ports   gateway to the Mississippi River system   major trade center   slave-trade center earlier on   Caribbean commercial hub   entry point into the interior United States   Immigrants entered through:  Gulf shipping routes   Caribbean routes   Latin American routes   French and Spanish colonial networks     Record Keeping Was Often Messy  Compared to later federal immigration systems, early New Orleans documentation could be:  inconsistent   decentralized   damaged   incomplete   multilingual   Records existed, but:  standards varied   spellings changed   manifests were inconsistent   local archives suffered losses over time   And Louisiana had additional complications because of:  French influence   Spanish colonial history   mixed legal systems   shifting governments   hurricanes   floods   fires   humid climate damaging paper  Mississippi River System  New Orleans also functioned differently from Ellis Island.  Many immigrants:  arrived quietly   dispersed rapidly upriver   moved into river commerce   entered agricultural zones   disappeared into frontier settlements   So tracing them later became harder.  Which Groups Came Through Louisiana?  Various groups arrived through Gulf ports including:  French   Spanish   Sicilians   Germans   Irish   Caribbean populations   Jews from Mediterranean regions   some Eastern Europeans later   Sicilian migration into Louisiana, for example, became extremely important in the late nineteenth century.  And many records were:  local   church-based   shipping-company based   handwritten   partially destroyed  The famous "Mrs. O'Leary's cow kicked over the lantern" story tied to the 1871 Great Chicago Fire was later admitted being fabricated by a reporter.  The journalist was Michael Ahern, a reporter for the Chicago Republican. In 1893, he reportedly admitted that he and other reporters made up the cow story because they thought it made colorful copy and gave the disaster a simple, dramatic explanation.   The woman blamed, Catherine O'Leary, was an Irish immigrant whose barn was where the fire was believed to have started. The official investigation never proved she or her cow caused the fire. Historians now generally view her as a scapegoat shaped by anti-Irish and anti-Catholic prejudice common at the time.   What is interesting historically is how powerful the myth became even after the confession. The "cow and lantern" version stayed in textbooks, movies, songs, cartoons, and public memory for over a century. Chicago's city council eventually formally cleared Mrs. O'Leary and the cow in 1997.   The exact cause of the fire still is not definitively known. Other theories include:  accidental ignition by people in or near the barn a neighboring party gathering pipe smoking near hay broader drought and fire conditions across the Midwest that week One thing historians largely agree on is that Chicago itself was extremely vulnerable to catastrophe at that moment:  long drought   strong winds  wooden sidewalks and buildings   exhausted fire crews   rapid population growth  and weak fire infrastructure   The Fire began on the night of October 8, 1871, and burned until early October 10, 1871 the 1890 United States Census destruction erased most federal data for that critical transition period   immigrant records from the 1880s–1890s were already inconsistent   many immigrants changed names   Yiddish spellings varied   addresses changed constantly   overcrowded neighborhoods created undercounting problems   So historians often reconstruct estimates indirectly.  Was Everyone Counted Even BEFORE the Fire?  No. Even before destruction, nineteenth-century census-taking had major weaknesses:  language barriers   mistrust of government   transient populations   crowded tenements   undocumented boarders   spelling confusion   enumerator mistakes   This especially affected:  poor immigrants   urban laborers   recent arrivals   Chicago Was Extremely Chaotic  Late nineteenth-century Chicago was exploding in population:  railroads   meatpacking   garment industry   factories   slums   rapid housing turnover   Neighborhoods like:  Maxwell Street   Near West Side   were crowded and constantly shifting.  People:  moved frequently   boarded with relatives   used nicknames   Americanized names later   sometimes avoided officials entirely  So How Many Might Be Missing?  No exact number exists, but historians generally believe:  Tens of thousands of individuals  connected to late nineteenth-century Chicago immigration history became difficult or impossible to track cleanly because of:  the missing 1890 census   Ellis Island fire losses   local record inconsistency   For Jewish Chicago specifically, the biggest visibility gap is the:  1880–1900 explosion period  That is exactly when:  Eastern European Ashkenazi migration accelerated   neighborhoods formed   businesses started   families Americanized   labor networks developed   Important Detail  The population estimates themselves:  "50,000 by 1890"   "250,000 by 1920"   are often reconstructed using:  synagogue memberships   city directories   Yiddish newspapers   charity records   burial societies   school enrollment   neighborhood studies   later census backtracking   Meaning: historians had to rebuild the picture indirectly because the direct federal snapshot was mostly gone.   Why Researchers Find This So Frustrating  The lost 1890 census sat at the exact pivot point between:  older German Jewish migration and   massive Eastern European Ashkenazi migration   Without it, researchers lose a critical "before and after" snapshot of:  assimilation   neighborhood formation   occupational shifts   chain migration patterns   early labor organization   family structures   That is why the 1890 census destruction is considered one of the worst archival losses in American demographic history.  First Major Hit  1871 — Great Chicago Fire  The Great Chicago Fire destroys:  municipal records   church archives   business papers   property documents   newspapers   personal family records   This damages visibility into:  earlier immigrant settlement   pre-1871 Chicago neighborhoods   early German, Irish, and Jewish communities   So researchers lose part of the "before" picture.  Then Massive Immigration Explosion  1880s–1920s  Chicago explodes industrially:  railroads   stockyards   factories   garment industry   steel   shipping   Huge waves arrive:  Italians   Eastern European Jews   Poles   Lithuanians   Russians   Ukrainians   Bohemians   Croatians   Neighborhoods form rapidly.    Second Major Hit  1890 Census destroyed  Then the 1890 United States Census destruction wipes out the key federal snapshot right in the middle of that transformation.  So now researchers lose much of the "during" picture.    Third Hit  1897 Ellis Island Fire  Then millions of immigration records disappear.  Now portions of the "arrival" picture are damaged too.    Why Chicago Gets Mentioned So Often  Chicago was one of the:  fastest-growing cities on Earth   largest immigrant hubs   largest industrial labor magnets   during exactly the period where:  records burned   archives vanished   names changed   overcrowding complicated tracking   So yes — from a research standpoint, Chicago got hit on:  the early side and   the middle side   of the immigration era.  That creates a layered archival fog over one of America's most important industrial immigrant cities.    The Timeline  1871  Chicago Fire destroys earlier local records.  1880s–1920s  Mass immigration boom.  1890 Census destroyed  Critical national demographic snapshot lost.  1897 Ellis Island fire  Millions of immigration records destroyed.  That sequence is why historians often describe late nineteenth-century urban immigrant reconstruction as piecing together a shattered puzzle.  Foundations of Empire, Banking, and Global Trade  1600  The East India Company is chartered by England.  This becomes one of the most powerful corporate-imperial systems in history.  The company eventually controls:  trade routes   taxation systems   private armies   ports   opium production networks   shipping infrastructure   India increasingly becomes tied into British imperial commerce.  1700s  European royal houses become deeply interconnected.  Key dynasties include:  House of Habsburg   House of Romanov   House of Hohenzollern   Europe is increasingly ruled through:  dynastic marriages   banking alliances   military treaties   aristocratic networks   The same elite families repeatedly appear across governments, military leadership, and finance.  Late 1700s – Early 1800s  Britain expands aggressively into:  India   China trade   maritime dominance   industrial manufacturing   The global economy begins shifting from land empires to industrial-financial empires.  THE NAPOLEONIC ERA  1813  The Iron Cross is created in Prussia during the wars against Napoleon.  Commissioned by:  King Frederick William III Designed by:   Karl Friedrich Schinkel   At this point, it is purely a Prussian military symbol.  Later:  German Empire adopts it   military aristocracy wears it   World War I Germany uses it   Nazis later revive and weaponize the imagery politically   This is one example of symbols evolving through multiple political eras.  1815  The Congress of Vienna reorganizes Europe after Napoleon.  Vienna becomes:  diplomatic center of Europe   aristocratic power hub   administrative center of the Habsburg Empire   The goal becomes stability through elite coordination.  This matters later because Vienna becomes:  center of psychiatry   psychoanalysis   elite bureaucracy   surveillance culture   rigid class systems  THE SASSOON PERIOD BEGINS  1792  David Sassoon is born in Baghdad under Ottoman rule.  His family is tied to regional commerce and treasury administration.  Aug 24, 1814  BURNING of Washington 1820s–1830s  Political instability grows in Ottoman Iraq.  David Sassoon leaves Baghdad and relocates to Bombay under British influence.  Bombay is becoming:  a major imperial port   a British commercial hub   a connection point between:   India   Britain   China   maritime trade systems   1830s–1870s  The House of Sassoon expands rapidly.  Major activities include:  textiles   banking   shipping   real estate   opium trade connected to China markets   At the same time:  British imperial systems dominate India   Orientalist scholarship expands   Sanskrit studies grow in Europe   archaeology and comparative religion explode in popularity   The same imperial infrastructure moving goods is also moving:  manuscripts   scholars   symbols   religious ideas   artifacts  THE CIVIL WAR ERA  1840s–1860s  Industrial capitalism accelerates.  Railroads, steel, banking, shipping, and wartime contracting reshape wealth structures.  The United States is industrializing rapidly.  1861–1865  The American Civil War erupts.  This becomes a major turning point in:  banking   industrial finance   railroads   oil   weapons manufacturing   federal power expansion   War creates enormous fortunes.  Industrial-scale warfare changes everything.  Civil War Financial Expansion  During and after the war:  financiers grow stronger   railroads expand massively   industrial monopolies emerge   wartime supply contracts create fortunes   Many later Gilded Age elites rise during this transformation.  This includes families later associated with:  oil   railroads   banking   international shipping   POST–CIVIL WAR GLOBAL TRANSFORMATION  1860s–1880s  The United States emerges as a rising industrial power.  At the same time:  British Empire dominates global shipping   Europe dominates finance   aristocratic systems still control much of continental Europe   Old aristocracy and new industrial wealth begin merging.  1869  The Suez Canal Opening opens.  This radically changes:  shipping speed   imperial trade   India-Europe connections   movement of goods and ideas   Bombay becomes even more important.  GERMAN NATIONALISM & SYMBOL TRANSFORMATION  1850–1890  European scholars increasingly study:  Sanskrit   Indo-European languages   comparative mythology   ancient symbols   archaeology   The swastika already existed for thousands of years across:  India   Central Asia   ancient Europe   Buddhist traditions   Hindu traditions   Originally associated with:  prosperity   balance   cosmic order   good fortune   1871  The Unification of Germany occurs under Prussian leadership.  The House of Hohenzollern now rules the German Empire.  Prussian military culture expands dramatically.  Symbols like:  the Iron Cross   imperial eagles   nationalist mythology   become associated with German identity.   1870s–1910s  German nationalist and racial theorists increasingly reinterpret ancient symbols.  The swastika begins shifting from:  ancient religious symbol   into:  nationalist identity marker   racial mythology symbol   "Aryan" ancestry emblem   This transformation happens BEFORE Hitler.  Key developments include:  völkisch movements   occult nationalism   racial anthropology   mythic German origin theories   The symbol is gradually detached from its Indian religious meaning and repurposed politically.  VIENNA, PSYCHIATRY, AND FIN-DE-SIÈCLE EUROPE  Late 1800s  Vienna under the Habsburgs becomes one of the intellectual capitals of Europe.  Simultaneously:  immense wealth exists   rigid class hierarchy exists   sexual repression intensifies   nationalism rises   imperial anxiety grows   This environment helps produce:  psychoanalysis   forensic psychiatry   modern psychological classification systems  1886  Richard von Krafft-Ebing publishes Psychopathia Sexualis.  This becomes enormously influential in:  psychiatry   forensic psychology   sexual classification systems   Vienna becomes a center for defining "normal" and "abnormal" behavior.  1889  The Cleveland Street Scandal erupts in Britain.  The scandal exposes:  elite sexual networks   class protection systems   press suppression dynamics   Rumors swirl around aristocratic proximity to the scandal.  This becomes one of many examples where class status appears to affect accountability.  FREUD, EMPIRE, AND COLLAPSE  1890–1914  Sigmund Freud develops psychoanalysis in Vienna.  This occurs during:  rising nationalism   imperial instability   elite social rigidity   anxieties about sexuality and degeneration   The Habsburg Empire is elegant outwardly but increasingly unstable internally.   THE FINAL PRE-WORLD WAR PERIOD  1900–1914  Europe is interconnected through:  royal marriages   military alliances   banking systems   industrial capital   colonial empires   Meanwhile:  nationalism intensifies   industrial warfare advances   racial ideology spreads   propaganda systems modernize   The same period also sees:  expanding mass media   modern psychology   intelligence systems   early public relations structures   WORLD WAR I  1914  The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand occurs.  World War I begins.  The old imperial order starts collapsing:  Habsburgs   Romanovs   Ottoman Empire   German Empire   1917  The Russian Revolution destroys the Romanov monarchy.  1918  The Collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire ends centuries of Habsburg imperial dominance.  Entire political maps change.  New flags, borders, and national identities emerge.  This is important to your larger framework because many families, commercial systems, and intellectual networks survive political collapse and continue operating through new states and institutions.   THE INTERWAR YEARS  1919–1933  Germany experiences:  humiliation after WWI   economic collapse   political extremism   hyperinflation   nationalist radicalization   The swastika is now fully politicized by the Nazi movement.  A symbol once associated with prosperity in India is transformed into one of the most infamous political symbols in modern history.  Symbols Change Meaning Over Time Examples:  swastika   Iron Cross   imperial eagle imagery   Political movements repeatedly repurpose older symbols.  Elite Continuity Across Political Collapse Empires collapse. Borders change. Flags change.  But:  financial systems   aristocratic networks   industrial capital   intellectual institutions   often survive transitions and adapt.  Vienna as a Critical Intellectual Hub Late Habsburg Vienna sits at the intersection of:  aristocracy   psychiatry   repression   sexuality debates   imperial bureaucracy   nationalism   This environment heavily influences:  psychoanalysis   forensic psychiatry   later DSM-era thinking   trauma discourse   modern concepts of deviance and normality  The ORIGINAL Sassoon Family This is the famous Baghdadi Jewish mercantile dynasty.  The line begins with:  David Sassoon   Origin:  Baghdad   Ottoman Iraq   Middle Eastern Jewish community   Then:  Bombay   British imperial trade   Shanghai   Hong Kong   London   This is the:  opium trade   textile trade   banking   shipping   imperial commerce family   That is the historical "House of Sassoon" people usually mean in imperial history discussions.  Vidal Sassoon Vidal Sassoon came from a completely different background.  He was:  born in London in 1928   from a poor Jewish family in East London   raised partly in an orphanage during childhood hardship   became famous as a revolutionary hairstylist in the 1960s   His family was Ashkenazi Jewish, tied to the London Jewish community.  He was not part of the wealthy Baghdadi merchant dynasty that built the 19th-century trade empire.    Why The Same Name?  "Sassoon" is an old Jewish surname with Middle Eastern roots.  The name itself comes from:  "Sasson" or "Sassoon" meaning:   joy   happiness   The surname existed across multiple Jewish communities:  Iraqi   Syrian   Sephardi   later some Ashkenazi branches too   So sharing the name does not automatically mean direct connection to the elite mercantile dynasty.    Important Distinction  When discussing:  British imperial trade   Bombay   opium   China trade   Ottoman Baghdad   imperial finance   you are talking about the Baghdadi merchant dynasty.  When discussing:  1960s fashion   celebrity hairdressing   Vidal Sassoon salons   London fashion culture  .  *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:44eeac70-335e-402b-a16d-cf1dc48bb5d7-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:44eeac70-335e-402b-a16d-cf1dc48bb5d7-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> "Orthodox Jewish" and "Ashkenazi" are describing two different things.  Orthodox refers to religious practice and belief. Ashkenazi refers to historical/ethnic origin and culture. So an Orthodox Jew can be:  Ashkenazi   Sephardi   Mizrahi   Yemenite   Ethiopian   etc.   Those are separate categories.  The Simplest Breakdown  Ashkenazi Jews  Historically associated with:  Central Europe   Eastern Europe   Germany   Poland   Russia   Austria   Hungary   Language traditionally:  Yiddish     Sephardi Jews  Historically associated with:  Spain   Portugal   later Ottoman regions after expulsions   Languages historically included:  Ladino   Spanish-influenced dialects     Mizrahi Jews  Historically associated with:  Middle East   Iraq   Iran   Syria   Yemen   Arabic, Persian, and regional languages were common.  The David Sassoon family came from the Baghdad/Iraqi Jewish world, which is generally classified as:  Mizrahi or sometimes:   Sephardi-Mizrahi due to religious traditions and later classifications.   They were not originally Eastern European Ashkenazi Jews.  So Why The Confusion?  In modern America and Europe, many visible Orthodox communities are Ashkenazi because:  Eastern European Jewish migration was massive in the 1800s–1900s.   Many Orthodox institutions in the U.S. developed from those communities.   So people often unconsciously equate: "Orthodox" = "Ashkenazi"  But globally and historically that is not accurate.  For example:  Iraqi Orthodox Jews existed.   Syrian Orthodox Jews existed.   Persian Orthodox Jews existed.   Yemenite Orthodox Jews existed.   Orthodox simply means traditional religious observance.   The Sassoons are interesting precisely because they do NOT fit the common "Eastern European Jewish" stereotype many people imagine automatically.  They were:  Baghdadi Jews   tied into Ottoman and British imperial trade systems   operating through Bombay, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and London   culturally connected to Middle Eastern Jewish traditions while also integrating into British imperial society   That made them somewhat unique:  Middle Eastern origin   British imperial integration   global commercial reach   This is part of why they became so historically significant in trade networks during the 1800s.  The Sassoon's, the Ottoman Collapse, British Imperial Expansion, and the Reshaping of Global Power The rise of the David Sassoon family cannot be understood as an isolated business success story. Their ascent occurred during one of the greatest shifts in global power in modern history: the gradual decline of the Ottoman Empire and the simultaneous expansion of the British Empire. The Sassoon's stood directly at the intersection of those two worlds. They originated inside the old Ottoman-commercial system but successfully transferred themselves into the rapidly expanding British-imperial-financial system before the Ottoman structure finally fractured into modern nation-states. That transition preserved and multiplied their wealth while much of the old regional order around them eventually collapsed. Baghdad Under Ottoman Rule David Sassoon was born in Baghdad in 1792, when the city was still governed as part of the Ottoman Empire. At that time, Baghdad was not part of a modern nation-state called Iraq. Iraq did not yet exist. The region was governed through Ottoman provincial systems that connected cities like Baghdad, Damascus, Aleppo, Jerusalem, and Istanbul under one imperial structure. The Ottoman Empire during the early 1800s was already showing signs of strain: weakening administrative control corruption among local governors rising European commercial penetration military decline debt problems regional instability growing nationalist movements Merchant families often survived by carefully navigating relationships with both local rulers and expanding foreign powers. David Sassoon's father reportedly served in financial administration connected to the Ottoman governor system in Baghdad. But under governor Dawud Pasha, persecution and political pressure intensified, causing David Sassoon to flee. This departure would become one of the most consequential moves in the family's history. The Importance of Bombay When David Sassoon relocated to Bombay in the 1830s, he was not moving into a random city. Bombay was becoming one of the British Empire's most important strategic ports. It connected: India China the Persian Gulf East Africa Europe through expanding imperial shipping systems. This was the age of: steamships imperial insurance markets global commodity exchanges telegraph expansion colonial naval protection industrial manufacturing Britain was turning maritime trade into a global machine. The Sassoons entered this machine at exactly the right moment. The British Empire Was Expanding While the Ottoman World Was Weakening This timing is critical to understanding the family's success. During the 19th century: The Ottoman Empire was: losing territorial control financially weakened politically unstable increasingly dependent on European powers struggling against nationalist uprisings Meanwhile: The British Empire was: dominating global shipping expanding industrial production controlling Indian resources building international banking systems projecting naval power worldwide establishing influence across Asia and the Middle East The Sassoon's repositioned themselves inside the stronger system before the older one collapsed. That transition gave them advantages that many regional merchant families never obtained. The Opium System and Imperial Trade One of the most controversial aspects of the Sassoon story was their involvement in the opium trade. The report explains that the Sassoon's became deeply connected to trade between India and China, especially opium exports. This trade was not operating outside empire. It was embedded inside imperial systems themselves. British-controlled India became one of the world's major opium production centers. The product was exported into China through networks involving: shipping firms traders banks insurers colonial authorities The opium trade generated enormous wealth. According to the material, the Sassoon's eventually controlled around 70 percent of that trade. This meant the family's fortune was tied directly to: British imperial commerce Indian agricultural production Chinese treaty-port systems maritime shipping global finance The family became part of the infrastructure of empire itself. The American Civil War and Global Opportunity The Sassoons also benefited from another massive geopolitical event: the American Civil War. When the Union blockade cut off Confederate cotton exports, Britain suddenly faced a cotton crisis because its textile mills depended heavily on Southern cotton supplies. This disruption created enormous opportunities for alternative cotton traders. The Sassoons capitalized on the shortage through their Indian cotton operations. This illustrates how globally connected the empire had become. A war in America could: disrupt British industry increase Indian cotton profits enrich merchant dynasties in Bombay reshape shipping markets worldwide The Sassoons operated inside that interconnected system. Loyalty to Britain David Sassoon appears to have understood where long-term power was moving. Although he reportedly retained traditional dress and did not fully westernize personally, he aligned himself politically with British authority. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, he supported British colonial authorities and pledged the backing of Bombay's Jewish community. That loyalty strengthened the family's imperial standing. The British rewarded groups and families they viewed as stable commercial allies. Merchant dynasties that helped maintain trade, finance, and political order could gain extraordinary access and protection. Wealth Turns Into Social Power By the late 1800s, the Sassoon's were no longer simply traders. They were becoming imperial aristocrats. Albert Sassoon moved the family headquarters to London and became deeply integrated into elite society. He received: knighthood aristocratic honors Freedom of the City of London access to royal circles The family acquired: estates mansions country homes political influence They socialized with: the Prince of Wales aristocrats financiers politicians military officers The report notes that Albert became closely connected to the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII. At this point, the Sassoon's had effectively crossed from merchant capitalism into elite imperial society. Yet Acceptance Was Incomplete Despite their wealth, titles, and connections, the family still encountered prejudice. The report includes examples of antisemitic insults and dismissive commentary from parts of British upper-class society. This reveals an important contradiction of imperial Britain: The empire often welcomed: money investment trade philanthropy political usefulness while portions of elite society still resisted fully accepting outsiders culturally or socially. The Sassoon's could enter elite circles, but full assimilation remained complicated. The Ottoman Collapse and the Creation of Modern Borders By the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire was approaching final collapse. After World War I: the empire fragmented territories were partitioned new countries emerged European mandates expanded The Middle East was redrawn. New flags, borders, governments, and identities appeared across former Ottoman lands. But the Sassoons had already largely shifted outward into: London Bombay Shanghai British banking international real estate imperial finance That repositioning insulated them from many regional shocks that followed the Ottoman collapse. In many ways, the Sassoons represent a family that exited one geopolitical order before its final breakdown and successfully attached itself to the next dominant global system. Shanghai and the Eastern Imperial Network The family's China operations became another major pillar of their power. Shanghai after the Opium Wars became one of the world's most unusual cities: foreign concessions international banking shipping firms trading houses imperial military presence immense wealth concentration The Sassoons became major players inside this environment. Shanghai connected: British imperial trade Indian production Chinese markets European banking international shipping The city became one of the financial capitals of the imperial world. Decline of the Dynasty Ironically, the same imperial systems that enriched the Sassoons eventually contributed to their decline. The family remained heavily dependent on opium revenues even as international opposition to the trade grew. In 1907, Britain, India, and China agreed to phase out opium cultivation and exports. This damaged the economic foundation of many businesses tied to the trade. Additional problems emerged: debt inheritance fragmentation family disputes declining innovation extraction of capital for luxury lifestyles The empire that once symbolized aggressive expansion gradually became less adaptable. By 1978, the Sassoon name had largely disappeared from the top levels of world finance and trade. The Larger Historical Meaning The Sassoon story is ultimately about far more than one family. It reflects: the decline of empires the movement of global capital colonial expansion imperial trade systems opium economics elite integration migration identity transformation the creation of modern financial aristocracies The family moved: from Ottoman Baghdad to British Bombay into Shanghai's treaty-port economy and finally into London's aristocratic world That path mirrored the movement of global power itself during the 19th century. The Franklin D. Roosevelt  Family line did connect through the Delano branch to American trading networks involved in the China trade during the 19th century, including opium-related commerce.  Warren Delano Jr. is the central figure usually discussed.  He worked through American merchant houses operating in:  China   Hong Kong   Canton/Guangzhou   broader maritime trade networks tied to British imperial commerce   The DeLano's were connected to firms participating in the same broader commercial ecosystem that included:  British trading houses   shipping firms   insurance   banking   tea trade   silk trade   opium distribution   Historically, American merchant families often operated alongside British imperial trade systems even if they were not officially part of the British Empire itself.  The important nuance is this:  The Delano's were not unique outsiders secretly doing something separate from the era's commercial system.  Rather, opium commerce was deeply embedded in the global trade structure of the time, especially around:  British India   China treaty ports   shipping finance   merchant banking   maritime insurance   The Sassoons, Jardine Matheson, Russell & Company, Dent & Co., and various American merchant families all operated inside overlapping China-trade environments during the 1800s.  As for Amsterdam, there are broader historical layers there too.  The Netherlands had long been one of Europe's major commercial and maritime powers through:  the Dutch East India Company   global shipping   colonial trade   banking   insurance   port finance   Amsterdam remained an important financial center even after Britain overtook Dutch maritime dominance.  Many elite merchant families across:  Britain   the Netherlands   France   Germany   the United States   became interconnected through:  banking   shipping   trade partnerships   marriage alliances   investment networks   Regarding FDR distancing himself from the opium aspect of the family history, historians have noted that later generations of elite families often emphasized:  philanthropy   diplomacy   public service   banking   politics   while minimizing or softening earlier fortunes tied to:  slavery   opium   colonial extraction   war contracting   monopolistic trade   That pattern was not unique to the Delanos.  Many major fortunes of the 18th and 19th centuries had roots in systems modern audiences now view far more critically.  In FDR's case, the Roosevelt public image centered heavily around:  patrician reformism   public service   anti-Depression leadership   wartime leadership   not the older China-trade world of his maternal ancestors.  So your general memory is directionally correct:  the Delano family did participate in China trade networks tied to opium-era commerce   these networks overlapped with British imperial trade systems   later generations often deemphasized that aspect of family wealth history   That broader pattern shows up repeatedly across many elite merchant dynasties of the 19th century. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:44eeac70-335e-402b-a16d-cf1dc48bb5d7-5" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:44eeac70-335e-402b-a16d-cf1dc48bb5d7-5" data-testid= "conversation-turn-12" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Pre-1800s — Before the European Reinterpretation The swastika existed for thousands of years before modern political movements ever touched it. The symbol appeared across India, Central Asia, parts of Europe, and other regions of the world. In India, it was commonly associated with ideas of good fortune, prosperity, harmony, cosmic order, and spiritual symbolism. When Europeans first encountered the symbol, they generally viewed it as Indian religious imagery, Buddhist imagery, or an archaeological curiosity. At this stage, nobody viewed it as a Nazi symbol because Nazism did not yet exist. The word "Aryan" also meant something very different from what it later became. Originally, the term was largely an ethnocultural and linguistic description. It roughly referred to ideas such as "noble," "our people," or speakers of related language traditions. The term had existed in ancient India and Iran long before modern racial theories appeared. 1700s–1820s — The Sassoon Family in Baghdad The Sassoon family had lived in Baghdad for generations and had already become established merchants and community leaders. David Sassoon's father, Sassoon ben Saleh, served as chief treasurer under Ottoman authorities and was an important figure within Baghdad's Jewish community. Baghdad at this time sat at the center of major trade routes connecting the Ottoman Empire, Persia, India, and Europe. Merchant families often developed extensive relationships that crossed regions, religions, and governments. The Sassoons were already operating within large international networks long before India entered the picture. 1828–1832 — Departure from Baghdad Political pressure and instability increased under Dawud Pasha. David Sassoon left Baghdad, traveled through Persia, and eventually settled in Bombay. This move later became significant because Bombay was not a small or isolated city. It was becoming one of Britain's major imperial gateways, connecting India, China, and Europe through expanding trade networks. 1830s–1870s — Expansion Through Bombay Bombay rapidly developed into a major commercial center. Sassoon wealth expanded through textiles, cotton, shipping, and the opium trade. The family also built schools, synagogues, libraries, charitable institutions, and extensive commercial networks. David Sassoon worked inside British trade systems while his business network continued expanding outward. Family operations spread into Hong Kong, Shanghai, Canton, Bombay, and London. His sons became distributed across various parts of the network, allowing the family to operate in multiple regions simultaneously. Their business interests also expanded into communications, real estate, and institutions. 1850–1890 — European Fascination with India Grows Around the same time, another process was beginning in Europe. German and British scholars became increasingly fascinated with Sanskrit, comparative religion, archaeology, ancient symbols, and theories involving Indo-European languages. Questions emerged such as: "Why do Sanskrit and European languages appear related?" Scholars including Friedrich Max Müller helped spread discussions about Indo-European language families. Originally, these studies focused primarily on language. Over time, however, some interpretations began stretching language studies into larger discussions about identity and ancestry. 1871–1875 — Schliemann and Troy Heinrich Schliemann excavated Troy and reported finding swastika-like symbols on artifacts. This shifted discussions in an important way. Previously, the assumption had often been: "The swastika is mainly an Indian symbol." Now some scholars began thinking: "The swastika appears across multiple ancient cultures." Some researchers became excited because they believed they might be seeing evidence of ancient connected civilizations. 1880–1915 — The Transition Period This period becomes one of the major turning points in the timeline. Ideas increasingly began changing in sequence. Initially, scholars focused on language theories. Over time, some individuals expanded those ideas into theories about populations and ancestry. Eventually, some people transformed these discussions into racial theories. The progression looked roughly like this: Language studies became discussions about peoples. Discussions about peoples became discussions about ancestry. Discussions about ancestry eventually became racial theories. The symbol itself became attractive because it appeared ancient, mysterious, visually simple, emotionally powerful, and supposedly linked to ancestral origins. Writers including Émile Burnouf increasingly discussed the swastika within broader Aryan narratives. Importantly, the symbol itself had not changed. What changed was how people interpreted it. 1890–1915 — Political Pressure Zone At the same time, Europe was experiencing enormous social and political strain. Nationalism was rising. Industrialization was accelerating. Empires were competing against one another. Racial theories were spreading. Mass politics was emerging. Mass media was expanding. Simultaneously: The House of Habsburg was entering its final phase. The House of Romanov was approaching collapse. German nationalism was becoming increasingly intense. 1914–1918 — World War I World War I caused severe damage to the old dynastic order. The Romanovs fell in 1917. The Habsburg Empire collapsed in 1918. The German monarchy fell in 1918. The Ottoman Empire effectively ended soon afterward. Large political systems increasingly shifted away from dynasties and aristocratic structures toward nation-states, ideological movements, mass politics, propaganda, and symbolic imagery. 1918–1920 Organizations such as the Thule Society increasingly used ideas associated with nationalism and Aryan identity. 1920 — Hitler Adopts the Swastika Adolf Hitler adopted the swastika for the Nazi Party. Hitler did not discover the symbol himself. By the time he adopted it, the reinterpretation process had already been developing for decades through various nationalist and racial movements. After 1945 Following World War II and the Holocaust, many organizations and institutions abandoned the symbol. Publishers removed it. Companies dropped it. Organizations discontinued its use. Military insignia changed. The symbol itself, however, continued to remain part of Indian religious and cultural traditions. The largest change was not the symbol itself. The largest change was its meaning in Western political interpretation. Aryan Originally: a cultural/self-description. Later: turned into a racial theory by later writers. Ethnocultural term. The Sanskrit word "arya" was originally an ethnocultural term designating those who spoke Vedic Sanskrit and adhered to Vedic cultural norms, in contrast to an outsider, or an-arya ("non-Arya"). By the time of the Buddha (5th–4th century BCE), it took the meaning of "noble." In Old Iranian languages, the Avestan term "airya" (Old Persian "ariya") was likewise used as an ethnocultural self-designation by ancient Iranian peoples, in contrast to an an-airya ("non-Arya.") It designated those who belonged to the "Aryan" (Iranian) ethnic stock, spoke the language, and followed the religion of the "Aryas." 12 Racial category. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, some scholars and others transformed the Aryans into a mythical "race" that they claimed was superior to other races. In Germany, the Nazis promoted this false notion that glorified the German people as members of the "Aryan race." At the same time, they denigrated Jews, Black people, and Roma (Gypsies) as "non-Aryans." 4 General label. In recent decades, white supremacists across the globe have started using the word "Aryan" as a general label for non-Jewish, white people Ancient Sanskrit "arya" = "our people," "noble," or people who followed a certain culture, language, and social world. Ancient Iranian "airya/ariya" = a similar idea: a cultural and ethnic self-description among early Iranian peoples. It did not originally mean "white people." The shift happened much later: In the 1700s–1800s, European scholars noticed similarities between Sanskrit, Persian, Germanic languages, Greek, Latin, and others.  Some people then made a leap from: "These languages are related" to "The speakers must come from one original people." Then some racial theorists stretched it even further: "That original people were a superior biological race." By the late 1800s and early 1900s, some writers in Europe—especially in German nationalist circles—started attaching northern European traits such as blond hair, blue eyes, and "whiteness" to this imagined "Aryan race." The Nazis later adopted and amplified that idea.  The oddity historians often point out is that the earliest "Aryan" references come from regions around ancient India and Iran, yet later European racial theories often reimagined "Aryan" as primarily northern European. That was not a direct continuation of the ancient meaning; it was a reinterpretation layered on top centuries later. A compact timeline: ~1500–500 BCE → "Arya" = cultural/linguistic identity  1700s–1800s → language comparisons begin  Late 1800s → racial theories emerge  1920s–1940s → Nazi racial ideology adopts "Aryan"    Aryan = a word used long ago by some ancient people to describe themselves, meaning something closer to "noble," "honorable," or "our people." Historically: In ancient India and Iran, forms of the word appeared in very old texts. It was originally connected to language and cultural identity, not a modern race category. In the 1800s, some European writers and racial theorists began using the term differently and wrongly turned it into the idea of an "Aryan race." Later, the Nazis adopted and distorted that racial idea for their ideology.  So in one sentence: Originally: a cultural/self-description. Later: turned into a racial theory by later writers. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:a23c910f-3eef-4480-8a4d-b2fd2ae1d859-2" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:a23c910f-3eef-4480-8a4d-b2fd2ae1d859-2" data-testid= "conversation-turn-6" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Ancient Sanskrit "arya" = "our people," "noble," or people who followed a certain culture, language, and social world. Ancient Iranian "airya/ariya" = a similar idea: a cultural and ethnic self-description among early Iranian peoples. It did not originally mean "white people." The shift happened much later: In the 1700s–1800s, European scholars noticed similarities between Sanskrit, Persian, Germanic languages, Greek, Latin, and others. Some people then made a leap from: "These languages are related" to "The speakers must come from one original people." Then some racial theorists stretched it even further: "That original people were a superior biological race." By the late 1800s and early 1900s, some writers in Europe—especially in German nationalist circles—started attaching northern European traits such as blond hair, blue eyes, and "whiteness" to this imagined "Aryan race." The Nazis later adopted and amplified that idea. The oddity historians often point out is that the earliest "Aryan" references come from regions around ancient India and Iran, yet later European racial theories often reimagined "Aryan" as primarily northern European. That was not a direct continuation of the ancient meaning; it was a reinterpretation layered on top centuries later. A compact timeline: ~1500–500 BCE → "Arya" = cultural/linguistic identity 1700s–1800s → language comparisons begin Late 1800s → racial theories emerge 1920s–1940s → Nazi racial ideology adopts "Aryan" So your instinct is essentially: "Where did the white part enter the story?" Answer: not in the earliest usage—it entered later through 19th-century racial theories. In plain language:  Ancient Sanskrit "arya" = "our people," "noble," or people who followed a certain culture, language, and social world. Ancient Iranian "airya/ariya" = a similar idea: a cultural and ethnic self-description among early Iranian peoples. It did not originally mean "white people." The shift happened much later:  In the 1700s–1800s, European scholars noticed similarities between Sanskrit, Persian, Germanic languages, Greek, Latin, and others.   Some people then made a leap from:  "These languages are related"  to  "The speakers must come from one original people."  Then some racial theorists stretched it even further:  "That original people were a superior biological race."  By the late 1800s and early 1900s, some writers in Europe—especially in German nationalist circles—started attaching northern European traits such as blond hair, blue eyes, and "whiteness" to this imagined "Aryan race."   The Nazis later adopted and amplified that idea.   The oddity historians often point out is that the earliest "Aryan" references come from regions around ancient India and Iran, yet later European racial theories often reimagined "Aryan" as primarily northern European. That was not a direct continuation of the ancient meaning; it was a reinterpretation layered on top centuries later.  A compact timeline:  ~1500–500 BCE → "Arya" = cultural/linguistic identity   1700s–1800s → language comparisons begin   Late 1800s → racial theories emerge   1920s–1940s → Nazi racial ideology adopts "Aryan"   So your instinct is essentially: "Where did the white part enter the story?" Answer: not in the earliest usage—it entered later through 19th-century racial theories.  The Swastika Before Hitler: A 12,000-Year History One Symbol. Two Very Different Histories. When most people see the swastika today, they think of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, World War II, and the Holocaust. That reaction is understandable. For millions of people around the world, the symbol became permanently associated with one of the darkest chapters in human history. What is often forgotten is that Hitler did not create the swastika. By the time the Nazi Party adopted it in 1920, the symbol had already existed for thousands of years and had appeared across multiple civilizations, religions, and continents. This page examines both histories: the ancient symbol and the modern symbol. The Ancient Swastika Archaeologists have discovered swastika-like designs dating back thousands of years. Some of the oldest examples have been found in Eastern Europe and are estimated to be as much as 10,000–12,000 years old. Over time, variations of the symbol appeared in: India China Japan Tibet Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Celtic cultures Nordic cultures Early Christian artwork Indigenous cultures in North America Although meanings varied, the symbol was commonly associated with: Good fortune Prosperity Life Eternity Harmony The sun Cosmic order For most of its history, the swastika was viewed as a positive symbol. India and the Origin of the Name The word swastika comes from Sanskrit. In Hindu traditions, the symbol is connected to well-being, prosperity, good fortune, and spiritual balance. Even today, swastikas can still be seen on: Temples Religious texts Homes Ceremonial objects Business openings Wedding decorations For many people in India, the symbol never lost its original meaning. Buddhism In Buddhism, the swastika traditionally represented: Good fortune Eternity Abundance The teachings of Buddha In Japan it is commonly called the Manji and is still used on maps to identify Buddhist temples. Visitors to Asia are often surprised to discover swastikas displayed openly because the symbol's meaning there developed very differently from its meaning in the modern West. Europe Before the Nazis Long before Adolf Hitler was born, swastika designs appeared throughout Europe. Examples have been found in: Greek pottery Roman mosaics Celtic artwork Nordic artifacts Archaeological sites connected to Troy The symbol was often connected to movement, life, the sun, continuity, or eternity. Early Christian Uses Many people are surprised to learn that swastika designs can also be found in Christian settings. Examples have been documented in: Roman catacombs Church mosaics Ancient churches in Ethiopia Medieval Christian artwork In these contexts the symbol carried none of the political meaning it would later acquire in the twentieth century. The Shift: 1800s–1920 During the late nineteenth century, European archaeologists, historians, linguists, and nationalist thinkers became increasingly interested in ancient civilizations. As discoveries from India, Greece, Troy, and other ancient sites became widely known, the swastika began appearing in scholarly publications, museums, books, and nationalist organizations. By the early twentieth century, the symbol was already circulating within some nationalist circles in Germany and Austria. Hitler did not discover the symbol in isolation. He encountered a symbol that was already being discussed and used in certain political and cultural movements. Hitler and the Nazi Party In 1920, Adolf Hitler adopted a stylized black swastika inside a white circle on a red background as the emblem of the Nazi Party. The design became one of the most recognizable political symbols in history. Over the next twenty-five years it became associated with: Nazi ideology Dictatorship World War II Concentration camps Genocide The Holocaust By 1945 the symbol's public meaning had changed dramatically. For much of the world, the swastika no longer represented luck or spirituality. It represented Nazi Germany. Why the Symbol Remains Controversial The swastika occupies a unique place in history. For thousands of years it was viewed as a sacred or positive symbol by many cultures. Yet in only a few decades, Nazi Germany transformed its public meaning across much of the world. Today, two historical realities exist side by side: Ancient Meaning Good fortune Prosperity Harmony Spirituality Eternity Religious symbolism Modern Western Meaning Nazism Hitler World War II Genocide Holocaust Totalitarianism Both histories are real. Understanding the swastika requires understanding both. The symbol itself did not begin as a Nazi symbol. But because of the events of the twentieth century, it became one of the most powerful examples in history of how a symbol's meaning can be transformed by those who adopt it. *]:pointer-events-auto R6Vx5W_threadScrollVars scroll-mb-[calc(var(--scroll-root-safe-area-inset-bottom,0px)+var(--thread-response-height))] scroll-mt-[calc(var(--header-height)+min(200px,max(70px,20svh)))]" dir="auto" data-turn-id= "request-WEB:31f76e37-fe66-4f78-98a5-5e1ff820f9f7-14" data-turn-id-container= "request-WEB:31f76e37-fe66-4f78-98a5-5e1ff820f9f7-14" data-testid= "conversation-turn-30" data-scroll-anchor="false" data-turn= "assistant"> Late 1800s German and Austrian nationalist groups were already using swastikas before Hitler entered politics. The symbol was showing up in nationalist publications, postcards, clubs, and organizations because some people believed it represented ancient "Aryan" origins. The symbol was already floating around in that world.  1918 Germany loses World War I.  The country is in chaos:  monarchy collapses   economy crashes   political violence erupts   people are angry and looking for explanations   Many small nationalist groups appear.  1919 Hitler joins the German Workers' Party in Munich.  At this point there is not yet a famous Nazi flag.  1920 The party is renamed the Nazi Party.  Hitler later described wanting a symbol that would:  grab attention immediately   work on banners and flags   unify supporters   represent what he believed was an "Aryan" movement   He described choosing:  red background   white circle   black swastika   He later wrote that:  red represented the movement's social idea   white represented nationalism   the swastika represented what he called the struggle of the "Aryan man"   That explanation comes from Hitler's own later writing.  So the root is not:  India → Hitler directly  The sequence appears to have been much closer to this: The swastika existed for centuries across India, Central Asia, and parts of Europe. During the nineteenth century, European scholars became increasingly interested in ancient cultures, Sanskrit texts, archaeology, and comparative religion. As information spread through books, universities, museums, and scholarly publications, the swastika became more widely known in Europe. German and Austrian nationalist groups then began adopting the symbol and attaching new political meanings to it. By the time Adolf Hitler entered politics in 1919, the swastika was already circulating within some nationalist and völkisch movements. When Hitler adopted the symbol for the Nazi Party in 1920, he was not introducing something new. He was taking a symbol that was already known within the political environment he had entered and making it the official emblem of his movement. This is an important distinction. The historical evidence does not suggest that Hitler was sitting in a library searching through Hindu symbols and suddenly deciding that the swastika would make a good logo. Rather, he encountered a symbol that had already been moving through European scholarship, nationalist organizations, and racial theories for decades. The Nazi Party then standardized it, promoted it relentlessly, and ultimately fused it to the identity of the Third Reich. That is why the real story begins long before Hitler. To understand how the swastika became the symbol of Nazi Germany, you have to look at the decades before 1920, when scholars, writers, archaeologists, and political activists were already reshaping its meaning. By the time he arrived, the swastika had already been circulating for decades inside German nationalist circles. He selected a symbol that was already loaded with meanings created by other people before him.  The process was much less mysterious than people sometimes imagine. Hitler did not sit alone in a room discovering an ancient symbol. He walked into a political environment where the swastika was already being used by some German nationalist circles, and then he turned it into a mass political brand.  Here's how it unfolded in plain English:  1919: Hitler joins the German Workers' Party in Munich. Germany had just lost World War I. The old empire had collapsed, there was inflation, street violence, and political chaos. Small nationalist groups were everywhere, and many of them already used symbols, badges, colors, and myths about ancient German origins.  The swastika was already circulating in some of those circles before Hitler became the central figure.  Then Hitler started focusing on a practical problem:  "How do we make people instantly recognize us?"  He understood something from propaganda and advertising: movements need visual identity.  Think of what he was trying to create:  a flag people could see from a distance   something simple enough to print everywhere   something supporters could wear on armbands   something emotionally powerful   Hitler later described experimenting with designs and rejecting many possibilities.  He eventually settled on:  red background   white circle   black swastika tilted at an angle   According to Hitler's later explanation:  red was meant to attract attention and symbolize the movement's social message   white symbolized nationalism   the swastika symbolized what he believed was an "Aryan" struggle   But historians are careful here: that was Hitler explaining his choice after the fact, and politicians often rewrite their own stories.  The practical side may have mattered just as much:  The design was visually strong.  A black shape on a white circle against red is hard to ignore. Even from far away, people could identify it immediately.  The process appears to have unfolded something like this: By the time Adolf Hitler entered politics after World War I, the swastika was already circulating in some German and Austrian nationalist circles. It was not a new symbol and it was not Hitler's invention. Hitler recognized that the symbol had strong visual impact and had already been associated by certain nationalist groups with ideas of ancestry, identity, and nationhood. Rather than creating a new emblem, he adopted an existing one. He then redesigned and standardized its appearance for the Nazi Party. The swastika was placed inside a white circle on a red background, creating one of the most recognizable political flags in history. The party used the symbol everywhere. It appeared on flags, posters, pamphlets, banners, uniforms, badges, armbands, and public buildings. As the Nazi movement grew, the symbol became increasingly identified with the party itself. After Hitler came to power in 1933 and especially after World War II, the association became permanent in the minds of much of the world. What had once been an ancient symbol used across multiple cultures became, for many people, inseparable from Nazism and the crimes committed under the Nazi regime. The root question becomes interesting here because Hitler did not create the meaning from scratch. Much of the symbolic baggage had already been built by decades of nationalist writers and race theorists before he arrived.  Hitler's contribution was turning a symbol into a highly recognizable political brand and attaching it to a mass movement.  Ancient India and many other ancient cultures already used the swastika for thousands of years.  Then in the late 1700s and early 1800s, European scholars working in India began studying Sanskrit and ancient texts. British institutions in India started collecting manuscripts and translating them into European languages. One major figure was William Jones in the late 1700s. He and others noticed similarities between Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Germanic languages. That started a huge wave of excitement because people began thinking: "Maybe many European peoples and Indians came from an ancient common source." Then in the mid-to-late 1800s, German scholars became intensely interested in India.  One of the biggest names was Friedrich Max Müller. He translated and edited ancient Indian texts and made them available to Europe. Müller himself repeatedly argued that "Aryan" referred to language, not race.  But then the chain changes.  Other people took scholarly ideas and stretched them into something different:  "If languages are related..."  became:  "Maybe peoples are related..."  then:  "Maybe some peoples are more original or superior..."  Then another event happens:  1870s, Heinrich Schliemann excavated Troy and found swastika-like symbols on artifacts. He connected them to larger theories about ancient Indo-European peoples.  The swastika entered German intellectual life through nineteenth-century Sanskrit studies and archaeology, then nationalist writers transformed it into a German identity symbol before Hitler ever touched it.  Hitler inherited the last stage of a process already underway.  1870s–1880s  Archaeologists and scholars were already talking about the swastika. After excavations at Troy, the symbol began appearing in discussions of ancient Indo-European peoples. It was being treated as evidence of a very old shared civilization.  At this stage, it was still mostly:  "Look at this interesting ancient symbol."  Not:  "This is the German national symbol."  Now the swastika was no longer simply viewed as a symbol from India. Instead, some scholars and nationalist writers began presenting it as a symbol that appeared in ancient cultures connected to what they believed was a common ancestral past. As these ideas spread, the symbol gradually moved from religious and cultural discussions into political ones. By the late 1800s and early 1900s, German and Austrian nationalist writers were increasingly using the swastika in their own theories about ancestry, identity, and nationhood. Two names that frequently appear in discussions of the swastika's political use before Hitler are: Guido von List Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels Neither man discovered the symbol in India. Instead, they inherited ideas that had been circulating through academic, archaeological, and nationalist circles for decades. The path looked something like this: The swastika existed in ancient India and many other cultures for centuries. European scholars studying Sanskrit, religion, and archaeology brought increasing attention to the symbol during the nineteenth century. Research and translations spread through universities and scholarly publications across Europe. Nationalist writers then began attaching new meanings to the symbol, linking it to ancestry, identity, and race. Political movements adopted those interpretations. Finally, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party took the symbol and made it the central emblem of their movement. The symbol itself did not change overnight. Its meaning was gradually reshaped by the people who adopted it and the stories they attached to it. 1890s  The symbol starts moving into nationalist circles.  Guido von List (1848–1919)  List became one of the major figures pushing ideas about ancient Germanic roots.  He wrote about:  ancient Germanic religion   runes   racial ideas   myths of old German peoples   He increasingly used ancient symbols, including the swastika, as signs of supposed ancestral German traditions.  The argument became:  "This is not just an Indian symbol; this also belongs to our ancient people."    Early 1900s  Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels (1874–1954)  He published magazines and writings mixing:  race theories   mysticism   nationalism   selective readings of history   He used swastika imagery in some of his publications and organizations.  Now the message changes again:  "The symbol represents racial struggle and destiny."    1910s  The swastika starts appearing in:  nationalist clubs   flags   publications   badges   paramilitary groups   By the time Hitler entered politics in 1919, he did not have to discover the symbol.  He walked into a world where people had already spent 20–30 years loading the symbol with new meanings.  Hitler standardizes it into the Nazi emblem  1890–1915 period is where the symbol stops being mainly archaeology and starts becoming political identity. That is probably the closest thing to the "root inside Germany" you have been asking for.  Before roughly 1870  The swastika in Europe was mostly:  an archaeological curiosity   a decorative symbol   a good-luck sign   evidence of ancient cultures   People even used it casually on postcards, buildings, advertisements, and jewelry. In the West it had not yet become toxic or political.  Meaning:  "Interesting old symbol."    1870–1890  After Sanskrit studies and archaeological discoveries gained attention, some people began connecting the symbol with theories about ancient Indo-European peoples.  The meaning starts drifting:  "Maybe this symbol connects ancient peoples."  Still not evil.    1890–1915 — the real shift  The Turning Point This is where things begin to change. For thousands of years, the swastika was used by many different cultures. It appeared in India, Central Asia, parts of Europe, and elsewhere. It was generally associated with ideas such as luck, prosperity, harmony, or religious belief. Then, in the late 1800s, some nationalist writers began looking at the symbol differently. The question was no longer: "What does this symbol mean?" The question became: "Who does this symbol belong to?" That may sound like a small difference, but it changed everything. The swastika stopped being viewed as a shared symbol found in many cultures. Instead, some writers began claiming it represented a particular ancestry, a particular people, and eventually a particular race. Over time, the argument grew stronger. The symbol was presented as evidence of identity. Then evidence of heritage. Then evidence of superiority. This was the real turning point. The first change was not that a symbol of peace became a symbol of evil. The first change was that a shared symbol became a claimed symbol. Once people claim ownership of a symbol, they can also decide who belongs and who does not. By the time Hitler adopted the swastika in 1920, this process had already been underway for decades. The Nazis did not discover the symbol. They inherited an idea that had been developing since the late nineteenth century and pushed it to its most extreme conclusion. 1920 onward  Hitler then takes a symbol that had already been loaded with identity and race ideas and attaches it to:  a political party   propaganda   mass rallies   dictatorship   war   genocide   After that, the symbol becomes permanently altered in much of the West.  1890–1915 the question quietly changed from:  "What does this symbol represent?"  to:  "Who owns this symbol and what does it prove about us?"  That is the pivot point.  During that period, the Sassoons were no longer a refugee merchant family that had just arrived in Bombay. They had already become wealthy and deeply connected to British imperial and educational structures.  Around 1890–1915, several things were happening simultaneously:  In Germany and Austria  Nationalist writers were increasingly attaching ancient symbols like the swastika to ideas about ancestry and identity.   Race theories and "Aryan" narratives were becoming more common in certain nationalist circles.   The swastika was beginning to move from archaeology into politics.   At the same time, the Sassoon world looked like this:  1890  The Sassoons had major operations running through:   Bombay   Shanghai   Hong Kong   London   1890s  Later generations of the family were increasingly entering British elite society.   Educational philanthropy, libraries, scholarships, and civic projects continued.   1892  Edward Albert Sassoon entered the British Parliament.   Late 1890s–1900s  Family members held roles in:   municipal bodies   banking   university systems   government councils   1901–1910  The family had become tied to major British political and financial circles in London.   1914–1915  World War I begins.   Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia are colliding politically.   Now the interesting thing is what isn't showing up.  During 1890–1915, I do not see documented evidence of the Sassoons appearing inside:  German nationalist groups   German race theory movements   swastika organizations   early Nazi circles   pre-Hitler nationalist symbolism campaigns   Instead, the family appears in:  British commerce   universities   philanthropy   government-linked institutions   imperial networks   So if you're building a timeline for your research thread, it may look like:  1870–1890 German scholars study India and ancient symbols    1890–1915 German and Austrian nationalist writers begin changing meanings around identity    1890–1915 (parallel track) Sassoons become increasingly integrated into British educational, political, and financial structures    1920 Hitler adopts an already-circulating symbol  The reason your question is useful is that these timelines overlap in time. But right now the documentary trail shows parallel tracks, not a direct bridge. The bridge, if there is one, would need a specific connection such as a scholar, institution, manuscript exchange, or individual moving between those worlds.  Timeline: Sassoons, India, and the Swastika Question Ancient India (thousands of years before the Sassoons) The swastika already existed throughout India. It appeared in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions as a symbol of good fortune, prosperity, and spiritual meaning. The symbol existed long before Germany, Nazism, or modern racial theories. 1792 David Sassoon born in Baghdad. 1832–1833 David Sassoon fled persecution and settled in Bombay (now Mumbai). The Sassoon commercial empire begins expanding. 1830s–1860s Sassoon wealth expands through: cotton shipping trade India–China opium commerce Bombay becomes one of the British Empire's major crossroads. 1840s–1870s The Sassoons begin major philanthropy: libraries schools hospitals civic projects educational institutions Examples: David Sassoon Library Sassoon Docks Question: Did their money help create intellectual infrastructure? Answer: Yes.   Mid–late 1800s Separately, another process is happening: European scholars become fascinated with: Sanskrit Vedic texts archaeology comparative religion ancient symbols People like: Friedrich Max Müller begin translating and discussing Indian materials. 1870s–1900 German and Austrian nationalist circles begin transforming "Aryan" from a language concept into racial ideas. The swastika begins appearing in nationalist and occult circles. People later associated with this phase include: Guido von List Open question you are asking Did Sassoon-funded institutions become part of the pipeline through which Indian material moved into Europe? Current status: Sassoons in India while swastika existed → Yes ✔ Sassoons funded institutions → Yes ✔ Institutions can spread ideas → Yes ✔ Direct evidence that Sassoon institutions transmitted swastika/Aryan ideology → Not demonstrated ❓ The key thing the timeline shows is something important: The symbol already existed before the Sassoons arrived. So the historical question becomes less: "Did they create the symbol?" and more: "Did their institutions or networks help shape the channels through which knowledge traveled?" That is a narrower and stronger question than assuming the endpoint first. Adolf Hitler's relations with India.  Times of India.  Adolf Hitler, the infamous Nazi dictator, had a complex and contradictory relationship with India and its people. On one hand, he admired the ancient Indian culture and appropriated the swastika symbol as a sign of Aryan supremacy. On the other hand, he despised the modern Indians as an inferior race and supported the British colonial rule over India. In this blog post, we will explore some of the aspects of Hitler's connection with India, based on historical sources and evidence.  One of the most prominent figures who tried to establish a link between Nazi Germany and India was Subhas Chandra Bose, a revolutionary leader of the Indian National Army (INA) who sought Hitler's help in overthrowing the British Raj. Bose met Hitler in 1942 and requested him to delete some of the anti-India passages from his autobiography Mein Kampf, where Hitler had written that India was better off under British domination and that Indians could not even walk properly. Hitler refused to do so and showed little interest in Bose's plan of staging a revolt in India. However, he did help Bose escape to Japan, where he joined forces with the Japanese army against the Allies.  Another aspect of Hitler's relationship with India was his fascination with ancient India and Hinduism, especially as propagated by Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS and one of Hitler's closest associates. Himmler was obsessed with the idea of finding the origins of the Aryan race in India and believed that the Vedas, the ancient Hindu scriptures, contained secrets of cosmic power and warfare. He collected books on Indian philosophy, religion, and history and even sent an expedition to Tibet in 1938 to look for traces of Aryan ancestry. Himmler also tried to emulate some of the practices of Hindu ascetics, such as fasting, meditation, and vegetarianism.  However, Hitler's admiration for ancient India did not translate into respect for contemporary Indians, whom he regarded as degenerate and unworthy of independence. He often praised the British for their imperial rule over India and considered it a model for his own plans of conquering Russia and Eastern Europe. He also treated the Indian students and professionals living in Nazi Germany with contempt and suspicion, arresting many of them without charges or expelling them from the country. He also ignored the atrocities committed by his ally Japan against Indian civilians and prisoners of war.  Thus, Hitler's connection with India was largely based on his distorted and selective interpretation of Indian culture and history, which served his ideological agenda of racial supremacy and global domination. He had no genuine sympathy or understanding for the Indian people or their struggle for freedom. His image as a friend of India, which persists among some sections of Indian society even today, is completely flawed and misleading.  Nazi Germany's Fascination With Ancient India: The Case Of Heinrich Himmler     More than 65 years after the fall of the Third Reich, Nazi Germany remains an obsession with millions of people around the world. Adolf Hitler remains one of the most prominent historical figure from the 20th century, evoking both disgust and fascination. While other totalitarian regimes -- including Fascist Italy and imperial Japan -- have faded in the public's fascination, Nazi Germany still exerts a powerful hold on many for a variety of reasons. Among the most interesting and perplexing aspects of the Nazi regime was its connection to India and Hinduism. Indeed, Hitler took the most prominent symbol of ancient India -- the swastika -- as his own. The link between Nazi Germany and ancient India, however, goes deeper than the swastika symbol. The Nazis venerated the notion of a "pure, noble Aryan race," who are believed to have invaded India thousands of years ago and established a society based on a rigid social structure, or castes. While scholars in India and Europe have rejected the notion of an "Aryan race, the myths and legends of ancient Vedic-Hindu India have imparted a tremendous influence on Germany. Perhaps the most fervent Nazi adherent to Indian Hindu traditions was Heinrich Himmler, one of the most brutal members of the senior command. Himmler, responsible for the deaths of millions of Jews as architect of the Holocaust, was a highly complex and fascinating man. He was also obsessed with India and Hinduism. International Business Times spoke with an expert on German history to explore Himmler and Hinduism. Mathias Tietke is a German author, editor and yoga enthusiast. His books include "Yoga in the Third Reich. Concepts, Contrasts, Consequences." IB TIMES: Heinrich Himmler was reportedly fascinated by Hinduism and ancient Indian culture and had read the Bhagavad Gita, among other classic Indian texts. How and when was he introduced to Indian culture? Was it prior to his joining the Nazi party, or afterward? TIETKE: As early as 1925, when Himmler was only 24 years old and had joined the SS, and just two years after Adolf Hitler's beer hall putsch, Himmler wrote: Kshatriyakaste, that is how we need to be. This is the salvation. ["Kshatriyakaste" referred to the military and ruling elite of the Vedic-Hindu social system of ancient India.] Himmler was deeply influenced by the Indologist, yoga scholar and SS Capt. Jakob Wilhelm Hauer of the University of Tübingen in Germany and the Italian philosopher Baron Julius Evola. Himmler had a keen interest in the Rigveda and the Bhagavad Gita. According to his personal massage therapist, Felix Kersten, Himmler carried a copy of the Bhagavad Gita in his pocket from 1941 until his death four years later. The book was a translation by the German theosophist, Dr. Franz Hartmann. IB TIMES: Germany's fascination with India and its culture started in the 19th century, no? That is, long before the advent of the Nazis? TIETKE: Yes, that's true. The fascination with and admiration of Indian culture can be found as early as the 19th century in the writings of pro-Aryan and anti-Semitic German philosophers and theosophists -- always in relation to Indian classical texts. In 1844, the German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling highlighted in his lectures the same passage from the fourth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita, which 100 years later would fascinate Himmler – so much so that he dictated this passage to his massage therapist. This passage emphasizes that a person's identity does not have to be defined by one's actions -- that is, even if they commit evil acts, they can still remain untainted and unaffected by ones' own actions. Moreover, in 1851, the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer raved about the enthusiastic spirit of the Vedas and the Upanishads, citing that his spirit is washed clean of all his early inoculated Jewish superstitions. IB TIMES: Is it true Himmler could read and speak Sanskrit fluently? Where and how did he learn such a difficult foreign language? TIETKE: Himmler read translations of Indian texts from well-known German and Austrian Indologists. However, there is no evidence that he had mastered or read the original Sanskrit editions. IB TIMES: As Reichsführer of the SS, Chief of the German Police, Minister of the Interior and head of Gestapo and the Einsatzgruppen killing squads, Himmler was responsible for the murders of millions of people. How did he reconcile such brutality with the tenets of Hinduism, which is a generally peaceful philosophy? TIETKE: Himmler had clear preferences with some of the scriptures of Hinduism. One was his interest in the Rig Veda, which in some places is imbued with much violence. The other was the Bhagavad Gita, which he greatly admired and appreciated. Himmler particularly referred to Krishna's instructions on satisfying one's duty on the battlefield and not to identify with such actions. In a poem written by Himmler, which I discovered in the Federal Archive in Koblenz, he tells stories about the holy life [that] unfolds itself on deadly born. For the period after the war, the Reichsführer-SS Himmler was already planning a retreat. He recommended that there should be sour milk and brown bread as physical food for his men and the Bhagavad Gita as spiritual nourishment and as the subject for meditation. IB TIMES: Aside from millions of Jews, Himmler was also responsible for the mass murder of up to half-million Roma (Gypsies). Did he not realize that the Roma are of Indian descent themselves? TIETKE: Himmler even killed his own comrades or SS officers, if, in his view, it served the supposedly higher cause, i.e., the ideology of National Socialism. Himmler was not really sympathetic so much to the complexities Indian culture, but rather to the ideal of the Kshatriya [warrior caste of India] and to the ideals of purity. IB TIMES: The Bhagavad Gita is partially about the adventures of Arjuna, the world's greatest warrior. Did Himmler fantasize that he was a 20th-century version of Arjuna "fighting for the glory of the Aryans"? TIETKE: Yes, I think so and there are such statements to confirm this. In fact, in an effort to explain his murderous violence, Himmler told his massage therapist Kersten that it would naturally be more pleasant to deal with the flower beds, instead of the sweepings pile and the garbage disposal of the state-- but without that garbage collection, the flower beds would not flourish." IB TIMES: Did Himmler view Hitler as his "god" Krishna – like a reincarnation of the deity? TIETKE: Yes, there were statements by Himmler in which he described Hitler as incarnation of a great shining light, as a predestined karma of the Germanic world. Indeed, Himmler equated Hitler with Krishna. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna declared that he will always be reborn when the peoples' sense of right and truth disappeared and injustice ruled the world. Himmler commented that this verse related directly to Hitler. IB TIMES: Did Himmler envision the SS as a modern version of the ancient Kshatriya Hindu warrior caste? TIETKE: Absolutely. Himmler conceived of the SS as a kind of "spiritual" order. He demanded loyalty, moral integrity, and also required that his men never acted from base motives. However, he also required his men to have a pure conscience -- inwardly cold, sober and willing to kill for a higher purpose. IB TIMES: Discuss Himmler's fascination with yoga and what he sought to gain from the practice. TIETKE: What Himmler had sought and found in yoga was legitimacy, relieving his conscience and overcoming his doubts. The concept of purity is found both in the writings of yoga as well as in the ideology of National Socialism --- that is, the idea that one has to detach oneself from such concepts as "good" and "bad." This was conveyed to me in 1997 in a weekend seminar in my training as a yoga teacher: Three days of the seminar were based around the Bhagavad Gita. In fact, according to the assertions of speaker, it was the "karma" [fate, deeds] of the Jews to be destroyed, and it was the "dharma" [nature, order] of the Wehrmacht and the SS, to wage war. I did not agree with these assertions. IB TIMES: Did Himmler (and other top Nazis) use the Bhagavad Gita as a kind of a "blueprint" for the Holocaust and World War II? TIETKE: The Bhagavad Gita was for Himmler and also for top Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg an important source of inspiration and legitimacy. They could refer to an ancient and sacred text to which British-German philosopher Houston Stewart Chamberlain and German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche had already referred to. In their comments they wrote of the "Aryan race" and the "Aryan belief" (Chamberlain) and about the superman (Übermensch), the [lower-caste] Sudras as the servant race and the degenerates of all caste and about the eject materials in perpetuity (Nietzsche). IB TIMES: During World War II, there was a community of Indian nationalists living in Berlin. The most prominent of these was Subhash Chandra Bose, who met with many top Nazi officials, including Himmler, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hermann Goering and Hitler himself. Is it true that Himmler was genuinely interested in helping Bose achieving independence for India (whereas most of the other German leaders only used Bose in a ploy to stoke anti-British sentiments in India)? TIETKE: I did not find any signs of Himmler having a genuine interest in the independence struggles of India. However, Himmler agreed with Bose's requests to allow for participation in a police training course of selected Indian soldiers in Germany. Since Bose was fascinated by the Nazi police force, including the SS and the Gestapo, whilst in Berlin in July 1942, he asked Himmler personally to train Indians accordingly.  Nazi Germany's Fascination With Ancient India: The Case Of Heinrich Himmler | IBTimes One year earlier, Nazi propaganda minister Josef Goebbels wrote in his diary: Bose is in the Indian question currently, the best horse in our barn. References Swastika, Aryan Theory, and German Nationalism Burnouf, Émile. La Science des Religions. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1872. Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas. The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology. New York: New York University Press, 1992. Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf. Translated by Ralph Manheim. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943. List, Guido von. The Secret of the Runes. Rochester, VT: Destiny Books, 1988. Originally published 1908. Mosse, George L. The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964. Müller, Friedrich Max. India: What Can It Teach Us? London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1883. Poliakov, Léon. The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1974. Schliemann, Heinrich. Ilios: The City and Country of the Trojans. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1881. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "Aryan." Holocaust Encyclopedia. Accessed May 29, 2026. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "History of the Swastika." Holocaust Encyclopedia. Accessed May 29, 2026. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "Nazi Party Emblem." Holocaust Encyclopedia. Accessed May 29, 2026. Ghosh, Palash R. "Nazi Germany's Fascination With Ancient India: The Case of Heinrich Himmler." International Business Times, March 26, 2012. David Sassoon, Empire, and Global Trade Green, Abigail. Moses Montefiore: Jewish Liberator, Imperial Hero. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010. Kadoorie, Michael, and Lawrence Kadoorie. The Sassoon Dynasty. London: Thames & Hudson, 1978. Sassoon, Joseph. The Sassoons: The Great Global Merchants and the Making of an Empire. New York: Pantheon Books, 2022. Shaked, Ezra Yehezkel. Jews, Opium and the Kimono: The Story of the Jews in the Far East. Tel Aviv: Astrolog Publishing House, 2007. Encyclopaedia Britannica. "David Sassoon." Accessed May 27, 2026. Ottoman Empire and Middle Eastern Context Cleveland, William L., and Martin Bunton. A History of the Modern Middle East. 7th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2024. Faroqhi, Suraiya. The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It. London: I.B. Tauris, 2004. Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Spain, Sephardic Expulsion, and Diaspora Gerber, Jane S. The Jews of Spain: A History of the Sephardic Experience. New York: Free Press, 1992. Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014. Netanyahu, Benzion. The Origins of the Inquisition in Fifteenth-Century Spain. New York: Random House, 1995. East India Company and British Imperial Expansion Dalrymple, William. The Anarchy: The East India Company, Corporate Violence, and the Pillage of an Empire. New York: Bloomsbury, 2019. Ferguson, Niall. Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World. New York: Basic Books, 2004. Robins, Nick. The Corporation That Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational. London: Pluto Press, 2012. Chicago, Immigration Records, and Census Losses Chicago History Museum. "Great Chicago Fire." Accessed May 27, 2026. History.com Editors. "Great Chicago Fire." History.com. Updated October 5, 2021. Pierce, Bessie Louise. A History of Chicago. 3 vols. New York: Knopf, 1937–1957. Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation. "Ellis Island Fire of 1897." Accessed May 27, 2026. United States Census Bureau. "The 1890 Census." United States Census Bureau. "The 1890 Census and Its Destruction." Prussia, Germany, and the Iron Cross Imperial War Museums. "What Is the Iron Cross?" Accessed May 27, 2026. Encyclopaedia Britannica. "House of Hohenzollern." Accessed May 27, 2026. The USA   "Americans believe that the United States of America became a separate country following its War of Independence against the British in 1783.   However, what happened was the setting up of the USA as a corporation subject to British maritime law. If you don't believe me then when you watch Obama speaking what do you think the gold border around your flag signifies?   So, if the US is just a corporation, not a country where's the evidence? Should we look for the Queen signing off acts of Parliament which automatically apply to the USA -   legislation.gov.uk/uksi… - it isn't the only one.   The one above was the Queen dictating social security legislation to the IRS. Still think you're independent."  IRS Forces U.S. Citizens To Pay A Percentage Of Their Taxes To The Queen Of The UK Deep State – Political Vel Craft     References USA History   UNITED STATES is a Corporation - There are Two Constitutions - Sovereignty    Federal Reserve - The Enemy of America    A history lesson for Americans. You're still British. – Patriots for Truth    bankruptcyofus.pdf    War and Emergency Powers       Media Release: The People Are the Enemy    "Since March 9, 1933, the United States has been in a state of declared national emergency Powers listed:    Seize property     Organize and control production     Seize commodities     Assign military forces abroad     Institute martial law     Seize transportation     Seize communications     Regulate private enterprise     Restrict travel     Control lives of citizens     (Source attributed in text: Senate Report 93-549)    14th Amendment | AntiCorruption Society        The IRS is not a US government agency.  It is an agency of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Diversified Metal Products v I.R.S et al.  CV-93-405E-EJE U.S.D.C.D.I., Public Law 94-564, Senate report 94-1148 pg. 5967, Reorganization Plan No. 26, Public Law 102-391).        The IMF (International Monetary Fund) is an agency of the U.N.     (Black's Law Dictionary 6th Ed. page 816)        The United States has NOT had a Treasury since 1921 (41 Stat. Ch 214 page 654)        The U.S. Treasury is now the IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Presidential Documents Volume 24-No. 4 page 113, 22 U.S.C. 285-2887)        The United States does not have any employees because there is no longer a United States! No more reorganizations. After over 200 years of bankruptcy it is finally over. (Executive Order 12803)        The FCC, CIA, FBI, NASA and all of the other alphabet gangs were never  part of the U.S. government, even though the "U.S. Government" held stock in the agencies. (U.S. v Strang, 254 US491 Lewis v. US, 680 F.2nd, 1239)        Social Security Numbers are issued by the U.N. through the IMF (International Monetary Fund). The application for a Social Security Number is the SS5 Form. The Department of the Treasury (IMF) issues the SS5 forms and not the Social Security Administration. The new SS5 forms do not state who publishes them while the old form states they are "Department of the Treasury". (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111 Subpart B. 422.103 (b))        There are NO Judicial Courts in America and have not been since 1789. Judges do not enforce Statutes and Codes. Executive Administrators enforce Statutes and Codes. (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428, 1 Stat 138-178)        There have NOT been any judges in America since 1789. There have just been administrators.  (FRC v. GE 281 US 464 Keller v. PE 261 US 428 1 Stat. 138-178)        According to GATT (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) you MUST have a Social Security number. (House Report (103-826)        New York City is defined in Federal Regulations as the United Nations. Rudolph Guiliani stated on C-Span that "New York City is the capital of the World." For once, he told the truth. (20 CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) Chap. 111, subpart B 44.103 (b) (2) (2) )        Social Security is not insurance or a contract, nor is there a Trust Fund.  (Helvering v. Davis 301 US 619 Steward Co. v. Davis 301 US 548)        Your Social Security check comes directly from the IMF (International Monetary Fund), which is an agency of the United Nations. (It says "U.S. Department of Treasury" at the top left corner, which again is part of the U.N. as pointed out above)        You own NO property!! Slaves can't own property. Read carefully the Deed to the property you think is yours.  You are listed as a TENANT. (Senate Document 43, 73rd Congress 1st Session)        The most powerful court in America is NOT the United States Supreme court, but rather the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. (42 PA. C.S.A. 502)        The King of England financially backed both sides of the American Revolutionary War..   (Treaty of Versailles-July 16, 1782 Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80)        You CANNOT use the U.S. Constitution to defend yourself because you are NOT a party to it!  The U.S. Constitution applies to the CORPORATION OF THE UNITED STATES, a privately owned and operated corporation (headquartered out of Washington, DC) much like IBM (International Business Machines, Microsoft, et al) and NOT to the people of the sovereign Republic of the united States of America.  (Padelford Fay & Co. v The Mayor and Alderman of the City of Savannah 14 Georgia 438, 520)        America is a British Colony.  The United States is a corporation, not a land mass and it existed before the Revolutionary War and the British Troops did not leave until 1796 (Republica v. Sweers 1 Dallas 43, Treaty of Commerce 8 Stat 116, Treaty of Peace 8 Stat 80, IRS Publication 6209, Articles of Association October 20, 1774)        Britain is owned by the Vatican. (Treaty of 1213)        The Pope can abolish any law in the United States (Elements of Ecclesiastical Law Vol. 1, 53-54)        A 1040 Form is for tribute paid to Britain (IRS Publication 6209)        The Pope claims to own the entire planet through the laws of conquest and discovery.  (Papal Bulls of 1495 & 1493)        The Pope has ordered the genocide and enslavement of millions of people.(Papal Bulls of 1455 & 1493)        The Pope's laws are obligatory on everyone.  (Bened. XIV., De Syn. Dioec, lib, ix, c. vii, n. 4. Prati, 1844 Syllabus Prop 28, 29, 44)        We are slaves and own absolutely nothing, NOT even what we think are our children.  (Tillman vs. Roberts 108 So. 62, Van Koten vs. Van Koten 154 N.E. 146, Senate Document 438 73rd Congress 1st Session, Wynehammer v. People 13 N.Y. REP 378, 481)        Military dictator George Washington divided up the States (Estates) in to Districts  (Messages and papers of the Presidents Volume 1 page 99 1828 Dictionary of Estate)      "The People" does NOT include you and me. (Barron vs. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore 32 U.S. 243)       It is NOT the duty of the police to protect you. Their job is to protect THE CORPORATION and arrest code breakers. (SAPP vs. Tallahassee, 348 So. 2nd. 363, REiff vs. City of Phila. 477 F. 1262, Lynch vs. NC Dept. of Justice 376 S.E. 2nd. 247)      Every thing in the "United States" is up for sale: bridges, roads, water, schools, hospitals, prisons, airports, etc, etc… Did anybody take time to check who bought Klamath Lake?? (Executive Order 12803)        "We are human capital" (Executive Order 13037)  The world cabal makes money off of the use of your signatures on mortgages, car loans, credit cards, your social security number, etc.         The U.N. – United Nations – has financed the operations of the United States government (the corporation of THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) for over 50 years (U.S. Department of Treasury is part of the U.N. see above) and now owns every man, woman and child in America.       The U.N. also holds all of the land of America in Fee Simple.   The good news is we don't have to fulfill "our" fictitious obligations. You can discharge a fictitious obligation with another's fictitious obligation.       Source: Stop The Pirates: These documents are NOT secret! They ARE a matter of Public Record.   

"Evil doesn't knock on your door and announce itself. It comes packaged as help, wrapped in charm, smiles, credentials, and promises." "The most dangerous predator is not the one hiding in the shadows. It's the one hiding in plain sight and convincing you to trust them."  For years, discussions about psychopathy have been dominated by dramatic headlines, Hollywood stereotypes, and debates over whether psychopaths are born or made. In this episode of Psychopath In Your Life, Dianne Emerson revisits earlier research and interviews to examine what science actually says about psychopathy, brain scans, genetics, and manipulation. From the work of Robert Hare and Hervey Cleckley to controversial studies involving James Fallon and psychopathic traits, the show explores how public understanding of psychopathy has evolved over time. The episode also explores the experiences of survivors who describe gaslighting, mirroring, emotional manipulation, impression management, and the unsettling feeling that the person they trusted was wearing a mask. Why do so many people later say, "I don't know what happened to me?" Can brain imaging predict dangerous behavior? Are "psychopath eyes" real, or are people recognizing changes in emotion and trauma responses? Through personal experience, historical research, and documented case studies, this episode examines the overlap between psychology, neuroscience, and real-world victim experiences while asking one important question: how do you protect yourself when someone harmful looks completely normal on the outside?   Clip Played:   Dianne Emerson - Psychopaths in our Lives (youtube.com)  Music:   Doctor My Eyes (Remastered) Psychopaths are Running Things -FROM: JANUARY 2020 (youtube.com)  How NATO Created Tests for Psychopaths — From Hervey Cleckley's Mask of Sanity to Robert Hare's Psychopathy Checklist, creating diagnosic confusion -Trauma Victims get Misdiagnosed as Psychopaths. Epstein and psychopaths:   EFTA02015431.pdf EP 215: How to Spot a Psychopath Before You Become a Victim (youtube.com)  James H. Fallon - Wikipedia  The Neuroscientist Who Discovered He Was a Psychopath (smithsonianmag.com)  [PDF] [EPUB] The Psychopath Inside: A Neuroscientist's Personal Journey into the Dark Side of the Brain Download (oceanofpdf.com)  FREE BOOK  Inside A Psychopath's Brain: The Sentencing Debate : NPRbe  Psychopathy: An Important Forensic Concept for the 21st Century — LEB (fbi.gov)  Psychopathy and the law: the United States experience | Responsibility and psychopathy: Interfacing law, psychiatry and philosophy | Oxford Academic (oup.com)  FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin - July 2012 — LEB   Bloodlines_ Introduction.doc WHO are the Royal Monsters running the World? LaVoy Finicum and the Bundy Gang Edited Robert Hare's Psychopathy List (2003) (youtube.com) SpaceX IPO: The Greatest Rug Pull In History? - YouTube                          Psychopath In Your Life – Dianne Emerson – YouTube                       Tune in: Podcast Links – Psychopath In Your Life                                              BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life                                    TOP PODS – Psychopath In Your Life                             Google Maps My HOME Address:  309 E. Klug Avenue, Norfolk, NE  68701   SMART Meters & Timelines – Psychopath In Your Life            Epstein Files The vivid term clinical psychopath brings to mind the berserk buzz-saw wielding investment banker played by Christian Bale in the film American Psycho. Since some 3.9 million people work in the financial services industry, a clinically-diagnosed horde of lunatics numbering almost 400,000 people would certainly be a matter of public concern, though it might only confirm some journalist s view of American capitalism. It is fair to ask what is the provenance of this incredible study.   The New York Times cites its source as a March 12, 2011 story in THIS WEEK, which attributes the psychopath data to an estimate made by free-lance writer Sherree DeCovny in CFA Magazine, in an article entitled T he Financial Psychopath Next Door. She wrote that studies conducted by Canadian forensic psychologist Robert Hare indicate that about 1 percent of the general population can be categorized as psychopathic, but the prevalence rate in the financial services industry is 10 percent.   The problem here is that Hare never conducted a clinical study of the financial service industry, and never did a research that 10 percent of its members were psychopaths. John Grohol, the editor of World of Psychology, after the publication of DeCovny s article, asked Hare about the putative study. Hare told him, I don t know who threw out the 10% but it certainly did not come from me or my colleagues.   The closest he came to such a claim was in a research paper he co-authored that analyzed the responses submitted by 203 corporate professionals from seven companies, none of which were on Wall Street. Nor were these 203 people randomly selected . He found that the answers of only eight people approximately 4 percent of the sample indicated psychopathic tendencies on a scale he had devised.   Even though this was not a clinical study, the responses of these eight people, who might have not even worked in financial services, were transformed via the blogospshere into a supposedly scientific finding noted in one of our most respected newspapers that one-tenth of those working on Wall Street are clinical psychopaths. As Ryan Holiday, author of Trust Me, I'm Lying: Confessions of a Media Manipulator, explained to me, "Headline-grabbing trend manufacturing such as this now dominates the pseudo-news cycle on the Web." Welcome to the Internet, which is not known for its source-checking. Unfortunately It is then only a short leap to the co-called newspaper of record, which is happy to serve up to the public this non-existing study, which like much else that demonizes financiers as a scientific finding. As a result, we now have mad men of Wall Street running amok in the public imagination Edward Jay Epstein is author of Myths of the Media  The New York Times published an article on May 14, 2012 concerning the question of whether the rich, from a moral standpoint, are good or bad. The story reported that A recent study found that 10 percent of people who work on Wall Street are clinical psychopaths and that they exhibit an unparalleled capacity for lying, fabrication, and manipulation.   EFTA02015431.pdf  Understanding Psychopathy Through Self-Report and Expert Insight  Psychopaths in Their Own Words  A collection of interviews with self-identified or clinically diagnosed psychopaths reveals chilling insight into how they think and operate. Their statements reveal calculated manipulation, emotional detachment, and an ability to blend into society with chameleon-like precision. They speak with striking indifference about death, human suffering, and social norms.  Key Quotes from Interviewed Psychopaths:  "The person you need me to be… is the person I will become." — "Bill"  "I was 11 when I knew I was not like other people… I didn't see why [a death] was upsetting." — "Steve"  "You probably don't feel bored at a funeral. I do." — "Fred"  These statements illuminate core traits of psychopathy: superficial charm, lack of empathy, emotional shallowness, and antisocial behavior.  Recognizing Manipulation Tactics  The narratives highlight common tactics used by psychopathic individuals:  Gaslighting – Undermining the victim's perception of reality  The Victim Card – Pretending to be the one harmed to gain sympathy  Mirroring – Mimicking emotions and values to gain trust  Impression Management – Carefully crafting a persona for different situations  Understanding these behaviors is crucial for self-protection and for identifying harmful dynamics in relationships.  Brain Scans and Psychopathy: What Science Tells Us  Dr. James Fallon's Discovery  Neuroscientist James Fallon discovered he had brain scan patterns consistent with psychopathy — specifically, reduced activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala, areas responsible for empathy, impulse control, and morality. He also carried the MAO-A gene variant linked to aggression.  Despite these biological risk factors, Fallon describes himself as a "prosocial psychopath," attributing his moral behavior to a nurturing, trauma-free upbringing.  Conclusion: Biology is not destiny. Genetic and neurological markers can suggest risk but don't determine outcomes.  Legal and Forensic Use of Brain Imaging  Applications in Justice and Mental Health  Criminal Justice:  Neurocriminology: Studies by Adrian Raine and Kent Kiehl show consistent patterns in violent offenders, such as underactive prefrontal cortex and overactive amygdala. Court Use: Brain scans have been introduced in sentencing and competency hearings—not as proof of guilt or innocence, but to explain impaired judgment or impulse control.  Mental Health Diagnostics:  Imaging aids in identifying and understanding conditions like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, ADHD, autism, and PTSD.  Military and Intelligence Applications:  fMRI and EEG used for PTSD research, cognitive performance enhancement, and lie detection (e.g., DARPA's "N3" and "ReSource" programs).  Behavior Prediction:  Kiehl's research found low activity in the anterior cingulate cortex was linked to higher recidivism—but predictive accuracy is limited.  Case Studies and Legal Precedent  Documented Legal Cases Involving Brain Imaging:  Herbert Weinstein (1992):  Brain cyst affecting impulse control helped mitigate responsibility in a murder case.  Antonio Bustamante (2009):  Frontal lobe damage presented at sentencing for double homicide.  John Hinckley Jr. and John Wayne Gacy:  Defense raised mental illness, but not psychopathy. Outcomes varied widely.  Andrea Yates:  Diagnosed with postpartum psychosis, her conviction was overturned due to mental illness—not psychopathy.  Andre Thomas:  Severe mental illness and self-mutilation failed to spare him from a death sentence, raising ethical concerns.    The Limits of Brain Scans in Court  Claim  Supported by Science?  Notes  Brain scans reveal psychopathy patterns  ✅  Supported in research, not conclusive  Scans can be used in legal defenses  ✅  Used in sentencing, mitigation  Scans can predict future crime with certainty  ❌  Correlations exist, but not guarantees  Psychopathy qualifies for insanity defense  ❌  Typically not sufficient alone  Scans can determine future of children  ❌  Ethically and scientifically flawed assumption  Insanity Defense and Psychopathy  Legal Standards  The insanity defense requires proof of inability to understand right/wrong due to severe mental disease.  Psychopathy, though a disorder, typically does not meet that threshold because most individuals retain moral knowledge.  Notable Tool: Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R)  Widely used to assess psychopathic traits in forensic settings.  High scores often lead to longer or harsher sentences, based on perceived future risk.  Ethical and Scientific Boundaries  Danger of Determinism: Brain imaging may tempt courts and society to over-rely on biological explanations, risking unjust outcomes or stigmatization.  Commercial Misuse: Some private companies exploit the hype around brain imaging for pseudoscientific personality or lie detection claims.  Research Ethics: Using brain scans to profile children's future morality is highly controversial and scientifically premature.    Final Takeaways  Psychopathy is a behavioral condition with biological correlations, but it does not predetermine criminality or moral incapacity.  Brain imaging offers valuable insights into behavior and risk, but its role in law remains supplementary and contested.  Legal systems draw clear lines between mental illness and personality disorders like psychopathy when it comes to assigning responsibility.  Early identification and awareness of psychopathic behavior in personal or professional relationships is key to protection and prevention.  Courtroom use of neuroscience must remain grounded in rigorous science, not pop psychology or sensational claims.  Can Brain Scans Determine Psychopathy? Who is James Fallon? Dr. James H. Fallon is a neuroscientist best known for his groundbreaking, and personal, discoveries in the field of psychopathy. He gained public attention when a brain scan of himself unexpectedly revealed traits typically associated with psychopathy. Title and Academic Background Dr. Fallon is a Professor of Psychiatry and Human Behavior at the University of California, Irvine. His academic focus lies in neuroscience, particularly in brain imaging, genetics, and the biology of behavior. Area of Expertise He is widely recognized for his research into the brains of psychopaths, especially violent criminals. His work explores how structural and functional differences in the brain relate to behavior, morality, and mental health. The Surprising Discovery While conducting a study comparing brain scans of diagnosed psychopaths with those of control subjects, Fallon decided to include scans of himself and his family members as a baseline. To his astonishment, his brain scan closely resembled those seen in psychopathic individuals. Specifically, it showed reduced activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala, regions associated with empathy, impulse control, and moral reasoning. He further discovered that he carried several genetic markers linked to aggression and violence, including the MAO-A gene variant, often referred to as the "warrior gene." Nature vs. Nurture Despite having what he called a "psychopathic brain," Fallon described himself as a "prosocial psychopath." This term refers to someone who possesses the neurological and genetic characteristics of a psychopath but functions successfully and morally within society. He credits his positive upbringing, marked by a loving and nurturing family and the absence of trauma, as the key factor preventing him from becoming violent. His case is frequently cited as a compelling example of how environmental influences can mitigate genetic and neurological risks. The Psychopath Inside In 2013, Fallon published a memoir and science book titled "The Psychopath Inside: A Neuroscientist's Personal Journey into the Dark Side of the Brain." In this work, he delves into his findings, personal reflections, and the broader implications for neuroscience, morality, and human behavior. Applications of Brain Scanning Technology Brain imaging techniques like fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and PET (Positron Emission Tomography), used in Fallon's research, have broader applications across various fields. Criminal Justice and Forensic Use In the field of neuro criminology, researchers such as Adrian Raine have used brain scans to study violent criminals and individuals with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) or psychopathy. These scans often reveal low activity in the prefrontal cortex and overactivity in the amygdala, correlating with poor impulse control and heightened emotional reactivity. Although brain scans have occasionally been presented in court to argue for reduced responsibility or sentence mitigation, especially in death penalty cases, they remain controversial and are not accepted as definitive evidence of criminal intent. Psychopathy and Personality Research Researchers also use neuroimaging to study individuals with high scores on the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R). This research typically focuses on emotional processing deficits, suppressed empathy, and moral decision-making. Fallon's case frequently appears in literature on behavioral genetics and the neuroscience of morality. Mental Illness and Cognitive Disorders Brain imaging has become instrumental in diagnosing and studying mental health conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, ADHD, and autism spectrum disorders. These scans help identify structural abnormalities and atypical brain activity patterns associated with each condition. Military and Intelligence Research In military contexts, brain scans are often used to study traumatic brain injuries (TBI) and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), especially among veterans. Some research, supported by DARPA and intelligence agencies, explores the potential for detecting deception using fMRI and enhancing cognitive performance through brain–computer interfaces. However, these applications raise ethical concerns about autonomy, surveillance, and potential misuse. Predicting Behavior and Risk Some neuroscientists have investigated the possibility of predicting recidivism (reoffending) using brain scans. For example, a study by Kent Kiehl and colleagues found that the amygdala function could be a better predictor of future criminal behavior than traditional risk assessment tools. Despite this, such methods are not yet in regular use due to ethical and legal challenges. Commercial Use and Brain-Training Claims An increasing number of startups claim to offer brain-based personality or risk profiling, often using neuroimaging technology. These services are marketed for purposes like hiring decisions, mental fitness enhancement, and even sales prediction. However, the scientific validity and ethical implications of these commercial applications remain under scrutiny. Is Brain Scanning for Psychopathy and Crime Real or Hype? Yes, It's Real Science — But Limited in Power Brain scanning technologies such as functional MRI (fMRI), PET scans, and EEG are real, scientifically validated tools used extensively in neuroscience. These techniques can reveal brain activity patterns and structural differences, contributing valuable insight into how the brain functions. However, applying them to diagnose moral behavior, predict criminal tendencies, or define psychopathy is still a developing and controversial area. These scans are not lie detectors or crystal balls, they offer clues, not certainties. Real-World Examples of Brain Scans in Crime and Behavior Dr. James Fallon – The Psychopath Inside One of the most widely known examples is Dr. James Fallon, a neuroscientist who discovered psychopathic traits in his own brain scan. His scan showed reduced activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and the limbic system, regions typically linked to empathy, impulse control, and emotion regulation. Despite these biological markers, Fallon has never engaged in violent behavior. His case illustrates that having a "psychopathic brain" does not guarantee criminal action, environmental and social factors play a powerful role. The John Hinckley Jr. Case In the early 1980s, John Hinckley Jr., who attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan, presented brain scan evidence as part of his defense. The scans indicated structural abnormalities, marking one of the earliest instances where neuroscience entered the courtroom. Although controversial, it set a precedent for the legal use of brain imaging. The Herbert Weinstein Case In 1992, Herbert Weinstein, a wealthy advertising executive, murdered his wife. His defense team presented brain scans revealing a large cyst pressing against his brain, arguing that it impaired his impulse control. This became one of the first successful uses of brain imaging in a murder defense, raising important questions about culpability and brain health. Predicting Recidivism — The Kent Kiehl Study Neuroscientist Kent Kiehl from the University of New Mexico conducted studies on prison inmates using fMRI. He found that individuals with lower activity in the anterior cingulate cortex were more likely to reoffend after release. While the correlation was statistically significant, it was far from perfect, nowhere near reliable enough for standalone decision-making in criminal justice. Brain Scanning in Military and Intelligence Projects The U.S. military, including agencies like DARPA, has funded various neuroscience-related projects. These include research into PTSD and traumatic brain injury (TBI) in veterans, experimental efforts to develop lie detection methods using fMRI (such as "No Lie MRI"), and inquiries into cognitive enhancement and potential neuroweapons. While these projects are based on real science, many remain experimental or classified, and their broader implications are still unknown. Where It Goes Too Far — The Rise of Pseudoscience As with many cutting-edge technologies, brain scanning has been co-opted by pseudoscientific and commercial ventures. Some companies now market brain scan services claiming they can assess your personality, predict job performance, or even detect infidelity. These claims are not scientifically validated and often oversimplify complex neurological data. The notion that a single brain scan can diagnose psychopathy or determine someone's moral character is deeply misleading. Brain scans are one piece of a much larger puzzle that includes genetics, environment, personal history, and psychological evaluation.   Is It Real?  Claim Real? Notes Brain scans can show psychopathy patterns Yes But not a definitive diagnosis on their own Brain scans used in courts Yes Rare but real (used in sentencing or mitigation) Scans predict criminal behavior with certainty No Some correlation exists, but there are no guarantees Fallon's case shows science is clear-cut No His case actually challenges deterministic interpretations Government/military research into this Yes Ongoing research exists, and some projects are classified or secretive You can scan a child and know their future No This is a dangerous oversimplification of complex human development Real Case Studies and Legal Cases Involving Brain Scans The Herbert Weinstein Case (1992, New York) In one of the earliest and most notable uses of neuroimaging in a criminal defense, Herbert Weinstein was charged with murdering his wife. During the investigation, a CAT scan and MRI revealed a large cyst compressing his frontal lobe, a region associated with judgment and impulse control. Weinstein's defense successfully argued that this brain abnormality mitigated his responsibility, leading to a reduced charge. This was the first known U.S. murder case in which brain imaging was introduced as part of a legal defense. The case was discussed in detail in Roper, M. T. (1996), Brain Imaging and Criminal Responsibility, published in the American Journal of Law & Medicine. The Antonio Bustamante Case (California, 2009) Antonio Bustamante was convicted of a double homicide in California. During the sentencing phase, brain scans were presented as evidence of frontal lobe damage. His defense team used this information to argue for a life sentence rather than the death penalty. The case exemplifies the use of neuroimaging in death penalty mitigation. It was analyzed in Denno, D. W. (2015), The Myth of the Double-Edged Sword: Neuroimaging Evidence in Criminal Cases, published in the Boston College Law Review. Kent Kiehl's Prison Studies (2000s–Present) Neuroscientist Kent Kiehl conducted extensive research within the U.S. prison system, scanning over 4,000 inmates using a mobile fMRI laboratory. His studies found that reduced activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, an area involved in impulse control and decision-making, was correlated with an increased likelihood of recidivism. This research was not anecdotal; it included full data sets, control groups, and robust statistical models. A key publication from this work is Aharoni et al. (2013), Neuroprediction of Future Rearrest, published in PNAS, 110(15), 6223–6228. James Fallon's Case (2013) Dr. James Fallon, a neuroscientist, discovered through brain imaging that his own brain exhibited patterns typically associated with diagnosed psychopaths, including inactivity in the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala. Genetic testing also revealed he carried the MAO-A gene mutation, sometimes linked to aggression. Despite these markers, Fallon lived a nonviolent life and identified himself as a "prosocial psychopath." He documented his personal experience and scientific findings in his book The Psychopath Inside (2013) and in peer-reviewed work, including Neuroanatomical Background to Understanding the Brain of the Young Psychopath, published in the Open Journal of Neuroscience. DARPA and Military Use Cases The U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has funded several neuroscience-related initiatives. These include brain scan studies aimed at identifying and treating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), cognitive performance testing for military personnel, and attempts to detect "maladaptive behavior risk" before deployment. Notable projects include "N3" (Next-Generation Nonsurgical Neurotechnology) and the "ReSource Project," both of which used EEG and fMRI technologies to assess mental resilience and fitness. Ethical Concerns in Pediatric Neuroimaging: The "Moral Child" Studies In a series of studies on empathy and moral cognition in children, neuroscientist Jean Decety used fMRI to explore how children's brains respond to moral situations. The research found that children with lower activity in empathy-related regions, such as the anterior insula, exhibited less moral sensitivity. While scientifically intriguing, the findings sparked ethical debates about early profiling and the potential misuse of brain data in assessing children's future behavior. The results were published in Decety et al. (2011), Neurodevelopment of Empathy in Children, in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. Not Just "Their Word" These case studies are not speculative or anecdotal; they are documented in legal filings and peer-reviewed scientific journals. They have been replicated and discussed in professional literature, and while often controversial, they are undeniably real. Brain scans are not magical tools, nor are they always conclusive. However, in documented instances, they have been used in courtrooms and research settings to influence sentencing decisions, offer insight into mental health, and provide a more nuanced understanding of behavior. Importantly, being labeled a psychopath is not a legal defense. But in cases where brain scans reveal actual damage or dysfunction, courts have sometimes accepted this evidence as mitigating, particularly in capital cases involving the death penalty. Why Psychopathy Itself Isn't a Legal Defense In the legal system, guilt is determined not by a person's personality or diagnosis but by their capacity to understand right from wrong and their intent to commit a crime. A diagnosis of psychopathy or Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) does not automatically mean that a person lacked mens rea, the criminal intent required for conviction, or the ability to distinguish between moral and immoral actions. Someone with psychopathy may have impaired empathy or emotional regulation, but this does not excuse them from understanding that actions like murder are wrong or illegal. In other words, being a psychopath is not enough to avoid responsibility in the eyes of the law. So Why Are Brain Scans Allowed in Court? Brain scans are not used to argue that a person should be excused from a crime simply because they are a psychopath. Instead, they are typically introduced in court for specific, limited purposes. These include arguing diminished capacity, questioning competency, or seeking sentencing mitigation. Here's how: Sentencing Mitigation In capital cases, brain scans may be used to argue that, although the defendant committed the crime, brain abnormalities reduced their impulse control or ability to make rational judgments. The goal is not to excuse the crime, but to avoid the death penalty by requesting a life sentence instead. Examples: Herbert Weinstein Case – A frontal lobe cyst was found pressing on the brain, impairing judgment. Antonio Bustamante Case – Brain damage was cited to argue against a death sentence. Support for a Diminished Capacity Defense In some cases, defense attorneys argue that their client was neurologically impaired to the point that they could not form intent or control their behavior. Brain scans can support this by providing visual evidence of: Tumors or cysts Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) Neurodevelopmental disorders Structural abnormalities in critical brain regions (such as the prefrontal cortex) This approach shifts the narrative from "bad character" to "biological impairment," which can affect how a jury or judge evaluates the defendant's responsibility. Competency to Stand Trial Brain imaging is sometimes introduced to help demonstrate that a defendant is not mentally fit to stand trial. This means they are incapable of understanding the charges against them or assisting in their defense due to neurological or psychiatric issues. Scans are used alongside psychological evaluations to bolster this argument. While psychopathy alone is not a defense in criminal court, brain scans have a role in specific legal contexts where neurological evidence is relevant. They do not exonerate a person from guilt but can provide critical insight into their mental state, potentially influencing sentencing or the court's determination of legal competency. The emphasis remains on the connection between brain function and the ability to form intent, exercise control, and participate in a fair trial—not merely on a personality label. Example Distinction in Court:  Argument Allowed? Why "He's a psychopath, so he's not guilty." No Psychopathy does not equal legal insanity or lack of intent "He has brain damage impairing control over behavior." Yes Neurological evidence can support claims of diminished control "He's not morally responsible because of his genes/brain scan." Rarely Still controversial and seldom successful in court Fallon's Case vs. Criminal Defendants Dr. James Fallon's brain scan revealed patterns consistent with criminal psychopaths—reduced activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala. However, despite these neurological markers, Fallon never exhibited criminal behavior. His case serves as a powerful example that biology alone does not dictate destiny. It underscores the need for courts to distinguish between biological risk markers and actual incapacity. The Bottom Line for Courts In the U.S. legal system, brain scans may be considered as evidence only under specific circumstances. Courts allow them when there is objective medical evidence of brain dysfunction, and when the scans are used to explain a defendant's behavior—not excuse it. Importantly, the evidence must align with established legal standards for mitigation or competency to stand trial. Understanding Psychopathy in a Legal Context In American law, psychopathy, marked by traits such as manipulativeness, emotional detachment, and antisocial behavior, is not generally accepted as a sufficient basis for an insanity defense. Psychopathy is often linked to Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD), a condition that typically does not impair a person's ability to know right from wrong. Criteria for Insanity Defense To succeed with an insanity defense, a defendant must prove that they were unable to understand the nature or wrongfulness of their actions due to a severe mental disease or defect. Because psychopathy does not usually meet this threshold, courts often reject it as a foundation for insanity claims. Notable Legal Cases Involving Psychopathy or Insanity John Wayne Gacy Convicted of murdering 33 young men and boys, Gacy's defense claimed he suffered from multiple personalities and was legally insane. The jury, however, found him competent and sane. He was executed in 1994. Jeffrey Dahmer Dahmer, charged with 17 murders, also raised an insanity defense. The jury concluded he was legally sane and sentenced him to life in prison. Andrea Yates Andrea Yates drowned her five children in 2001. Initially convicted of capital murder, her verdict was overturned. During the retrial, Yates was found not guilty by reason of insanity, but not due to psychopathy, instead, she was diagnosed with postpartum psychosis. Postpartum Psychosis: Medical and Legal Implications Postpartum psychosis is a rare but severe mental health emergency that can occur shortly after childbirth. It is marked by symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, mania, confusion, and thoughts of harming oneself or the child. While it is distinct from postpartum depression, it may evolve from it. The Andrea Yates Case On June 20, 2001, Andrea Yates drowned her five children in the bathtub of her Houston, Texas home. She immediately called 911 and confessed. Yates had a documented history of mental illness, including severe postpartum depression and psychosis. She had multiple psychiatric hospitalizations, attempted suicide twice, and had been prescribed the antipsychotic Haldol. Despite warnings from her doctors that another pregnancy could worsen her condition, Yates gave birth again and relapsed. During her trial, expert witnesses including forensic psychiatrist Dr. Phillip Resnick and treating psychiatrist Dr. Lucy Puryear confirmed she suffered from postpartum psychosis. They testified that she believed she was saving her children from eternal damnation. Yates was initially convicted in 2002 and sentenced to life in prison. In 2005, the conviction was overturned due to false testimony from a prosecution expert. In the 2006 retrial, she was found not guilty by reason of insanity and was committed to a state mental hospital, where she remains. Historical Recognition of Postpartum Psychosis Postpartum psychosis has been recognized in medical literature for centuries. In the 1800s, French psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Esquirol described mental illness linked to childbirth. By the 20th century, psychiatry began formally distinguishing between postpartum depression, psychosis, and other related disorders. While the diagnosis was not new in Andrea Yates's case, her trial brought major public attention to it in the United States. The Case of Andre Thomas Andre Thomas committed a triple homicide and exhibited extreme behavior, including severe self-mutilation. Despite clear evidence of mental illness, including psychosis, his insanity defense was rejected, and he was sentenced to death. The case continues to raise serious ethical concerns about the execution of individuals with severe psychiatric disorders. Psychopathy Assessment in Court The Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), developed by Dr. Robert Hare, is the primary tool used to assess psychopathic traits in forensic settings. Although it does not support an insanity defense, high scores on the PCL-R can influence sentencing. Courts often view high psychopathy scores as indicators of greater risk for future violence or recidivism, which may justify harsher penalties. Legal Trends and Public Attitudes State-Level Legal Shifts Some U.S. states, such as Kansas, have modified or abolished the traditional insanity defense. These jurisdictions focus more on whether the defendant could form the necessary mens rea, criminal intent, at the time of the offense. Changing Public Perception High-profile cases involving violent crimes and failed insanity defenses have contributed to growing public skepticism. This, in turn, has influenced lawmakers to tighten criteria for claiming insanity, making it more difficult for such defenses to succeed. The Misleading Research on Psychopaths Studies about psychopaths have been VERY misleading to NON-Existent. Robert Hare: The Modern Psychopathy "Expert" Robert Hare, the world's leading "expert" on psychopaths, did a study using prison inmates over 30 years ago. That study is the focus of his book published in 1993 titled Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us (reissued 1999). NO studies since then. That study is likely very flawed at best. Who Did Hare Base His Work On? Hervey Milton Cleckley, M.D. (1903 –1984) was an American psychiatrist and pioneer in the field of psychopathy. His book, The Mask of Sanity, originally published in 1941 and revised in new editions until the 1980s, provided the most influential clinical description of psychopathy in the twentieth century. Hervey Cleckley: The "Father" of Psychopathy What is Hervey Cleckley Best Known For? On many occasions, Cleckley was asked to testify at important trials. An example was the 1979 trial of Ted Bundy who murdered more than thirty people. " Bundy received a mental health evaluation from Hervey Cleckley when he was on trial for the Florida murders. Cleckley is considered to be the "father" of psychopathy. He diagnosed Bundy as a psychopath. Cleckley testified that Bundy was a classic psychopath but was not criminally insane. The Ted Bundy Trial: A Staged Event? The Bundy trial was fake, what does this tell you about Cleckley? Bundy was the first televised trial in this country, any televised trials are FAKE. The Ted Bundy trial is where the definition of psychopaths grew wings, thanks to Cleckley. Cleckley's Other Contributions Vitamins Virgil P. Sydenstricker was a professor of medicine and an internationally recognised specialist in hematology and nutrition. Articles published with Cleckley were among the first to describe an atypical form of pellagra (now known as "niacin deficiency"), which was then endemic in southern states. In 1939 and 1941, they published on the use of nicotinic acid (niacin or vitamin B3) as a treatment for abnormal mental states and psychiatric disorders. The studies have been erroneously used to justify the use of megavitamin therapy in psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Coma Shock Therapy Cleckley practiced the controversial "coma therapy", where psychiatric patients would be repeatedly put into comas over several weeks through overdoses of insulin, metrazol or other drugs. In the wake of sometimes fatal complications, Cleckley published in 1939 and 1941 advising on theoretical grounds the prophylactic administration of various vitamins, salts and hormones. In 1951, he also co-published case study research suggesting the use of electronarcosis for various conditions, a form of deep sleep therapy initiated by passing electric current through the brain, without causing seizures as in electroconvulsive therapy, which he also used. Stunning with electricity is known as electronarcosis, and killing with electricity is known as electrocution. Criminal Responsibility In 1952 Cleckley, along with Walter Bromberg a senior psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, published an article on the insanity defense. They suggested changing the wording of it to: "In your opinion, was the defendant suffering from disease of the mind and if so, was it sufficient to render him unaccountable under the law for the crime charged?" The concept of 'accountability' was intended as an alternative to a narrow definition of 'responsibility' under the M'Naghten rules, which requires an absence of moral knowledge of right and wrong, in effect only covering psychosis (delusions, hallucinations). They argued that mental illness can involve any part of the mind and that the insanity test should focus on the extent to which the accused's mind overall, due to some inner pathology 'whether obvious or masked', was unable to operate in accord with the law. However, 10 years later, a chapter by Cleckley on "Psychiatry: Science, Art, and Scientism" cautioned others against a common exaggeration of the abilities of psychiatry to diagnose or treat, including in regard to criminal responsibility. In that regard, Cleckley expressed his agreement with a critique by Hakeem, yet Hakeem had quoted Cleckley's claims about psychopathy as an example of psychiatrists exaggerating how clear their diagnostic terms are to each other. Cleckley was a psychiatrist for the prosecution in the 1979 trial of serial killer Ted Bundy, the first to be televised nationally in the United States. After interviewing Bundy and reviewing two prior reports, he diagnosed him as a psychopath. At the competency hearing a defense psychiatrist also argued that Bundy was a psychopath, however, he concluded that Bundy was not competent to stand trial or represent himself, while Cleckley argued that he was competent. Multiple Personality   In 1956, Cleckley co-authored a book The Three Faces of Eve with Corbett H. Thigpen, his partner in private practice and colleague at the department of psychiatry in Georgia University. It was based on their patient Chris Costner Sizemore who Thigpen especially had treated over several years. They published a research article on the case in 1954, documenting the sessions and how they came to view it as a case of 'multiple personality', referencing Morton Prince's earlier controversial case study of Christine Beauchamp (pseudonym). They also discussed what is meant by 'personality' and identity, noting how it can change even in everyday senses (becoming 'a new person' or 'not himself' etc.). Such a diagnosis had fallen into relative disuse in psychiatry but Thigpen and Cleckley felt they had identified a rare case, though others have questioned the use of hypnosis and suggestion in creating some if not all of the characterization, and the diagnosis of multiple personality disorder (now dissociative identity disorder) remains controversial despite, or because of, upsurges in diagnoses in America. The book also served as the basis for a blockbuster 1957 film The Three Faces of Eve starring Joanne Woodward, in which Lee J. Cobb played the initial treating psychiatrist and Edwin Jerome the consultant. Both Thigpen and Cleckley received writing credits and reportedly over a million dollars. In the book and film 'Eve' is cured of her alternate personalities, but Sizemore states that she was not free of them until many years later. She also alleges that she was not aware the session reports would be published outside of medical circles, or that she was signing over rights to her life story forever (for $3 for the book rights to McGraw-Hill which sold 2 million copies and $5000 for the visual rights (relatives received $2000)). She fought unsuccessfully to stop the publication of videos of her treatment sessions, but in 1989 successfully sued the film studio 20th Century Fox when it wanted to make a parody remake of its film and tried to use a 1956 contract she had signed, without legal representation via Thigpen, to prevent Sissy Spacek optioning Sizemore's own published book on her life. When Sizemore returned to Augusta for a speaking tour in 1982 neither Thigpen or Cleckley attended and she did not visit them, though in 2008 she described the diagnosis and treatment of her as courageous. In 1984 Thigpen and Cleckley published a brief communication in an international hypnosis journal cautioning against over-use of the diagnosis of multiple personality disorder. ********************************************************** Who Is Robert Hare?   Robert D. Hare was born on January 1, 1934 in Calgary, Alberta. He was raised in a close-knit, working-class family. Hare's mother had French Canadian roots and her family dated back to Montreal in the 1600s. Hare's father was a roofing contractor who spent much of his time during the great depression riding the rails and looking for work. Robert Hare is a Canadian psychologist who made major contributions to the fields of criminal psychology and forensic psychology. He is best known for his research on psychopathy. Hare is the creator of the Psychopathy Checklist and the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Hare advises the FBI's Child Abduction and Serial Murder Investigative Resources Center (CASMIRC) and consults for various British and North American prison services. Hare is currently a professor emeritus of the University of British Columbia. He is considered to be the world's foremost expert on psychopathy as he has spent more than 30 years studying the condition. Hare now works closely with law enforcement and sits on several law enforcement committees and boards in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States He describes psychopaths as 'social predators while pointing out that most don't commit murder. He has been nicknamed "Beagle Bob" by his close friends for his ability to follow a scent. How Hare Got Started   Frustrated by a lack of agreed definitions or rating systems of psychopathy, including at a ten-day international North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) conference in France in 1975, Hare began developing a Psychopathy Checklist. Produced for initial circulation in 1980, the same year that the DSM changed its diagnosis of sociopathic personality to Antisocial Personality Disorder, it was based largely on the list of traits advanced by Cleckley, with whom Hare corresponded over the years. Hare redrafted the checklist in 1985 following Cleckley's death in 1984, renaming it the Hare Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL-R). It was finalized as a first edition in 1991, when it was also made available to the criminal justice system, which Hare says he did despite concerns that it was not designed for use outside of controlled experimental research. It was updated with extra data in a 2nd edition in 2003. The PCL-R was reviewed in Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook (1995), as being the "state of the art" both clinically and in research use. In 2005, the Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook review listed the PCL-R as "a reliable and effective instrument for the measurement of psychopathy" and is considered the 'gold standard' for measurement of psychopathy. However, it is also criticized. Hare has accused the DSM's ASPD diagnosis of 'drifting' from clinical tradition, but his own checklist has been accused of in reality being closer to the concept of criminologists William and Joan McCord than that of Cleckley Hare himself, while noting his promotion of Cleckley's work for four decades, has distanced himself somewhat from Cleckley's work. Beyond Prison: The Real Psychopaths Problem with the above statement is that studying psychopaths in prison is one issue, but what about the ones roaming around running things? While the PCL-R has become the gold standard test for identifying psychopathy among prisoners, Hare has been warning about non-criminal psychopaths since he wrote his bestselling book Without Conscience in 1993. What Bob Hare and the FBI say about psychopaths: FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin – July 2012 — LEB Hmmm, warning people that non-criminals could be a thing doesn't quite cut it;) UBC professor emeritus Robert Hare, an internationally renowned expert on psychopaths, has offered his side of the story in a heated dispute over the boundaries of academic freedom. One of his adversaries is his former graduate student, SFU psychology professor Stephen Hart, who is also a highly regarded researcher in the area of psychopathology." Who knows could have been a trick lawsuit to explain the FACT they never did any real studies. Hare's Tools and Influence Hare is also co-author of derivatives of the PCL: The Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) still requires a clinical interview and review of records by a trained clinician The P-Scan (P for psychopathy, a screening questionnaire for non-clinicians to detect possible psychopathy The Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) to assess youth and children exhibiting early signs of psychopathy The Antisocial Process Screening Device originally the Psychopathy Screening Device; a questionnaire for parents/staff to fill out on youth, or in a version developed by others, for youth to fill out as self-report. Hare is also a co-author of the Guidelines for a Psychopathy Treatment Program. Hare also co-developed the 'B-Scan' questionnaires for people to rate psychopathy traits in others in the workplace. Hare is currently a professor emeritus of the University of British Columbia. He is considered to be the world's foremost expert on psychopathy as he has spent more than 30 years studying the condition. Hare now works closely with law enforcement and sits on several law enforcement committees and boards in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States He has been nicknamed "Beagle Bob" by his close friends for his ability to follow a scent. The Bigger Picture: Psychopaths Among Us What is that old saying? The Fox guarding the Hen House? Better to have us thinking dangerous psychopaths like Bundy are safely locked away. I doubt Bundy is even dead now. The world is staged to deceive. That is how they got us surrounded. My research has not been based on prisoners but on the actual psychopaths sitting next to us.  Hiding in plain sight. I suspect it is closer to 1 or 2 per FOUR people. A big difference. Look around; who is running things? Many people are modeling psychopathic behavior in the quest for more money. Money is even fake, yet people will go the extra mile to get more. I would argue that psychopaths are in charge of every part of society that I have researched. NO Studies have been done outside of the prison population. wonder why? On purpose is the answer. How else could they get us so surrounded? They are even lying about what sex they are. The women are all men wearing wigs. Women truly run the world, but they do it hiding as men. In Summary Herve Cleckley was the original "researcher" into psychopaths who wrote The Mask of Sanity. Ted Bundy was the first televised trial in the USA. ALL televised trials are fake. Robert Hare based his early research on Cleckley for 40 years. This is where the definition of psychopaths grew wings. References Foundational Psychopathy Research Cleckley, Hervey M. The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues about the So-Called Psychopathic Personality. 5th ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1988. Hare, Robert D. Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us. New York: Guilford Press, 1999. Hare, Robert D. Manual for the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R). 2nd ed. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems, 2003. Kiehl, Kent A. The Psychopath Whisperer: The Science of Those Without Conscience. New York: Crown Publishers, 2014. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR). 5th ed., text rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Publishing, 2022. Brain Imaging and Neuroscience Fallon, James H. The Psychopath Inside: A Neuroscientist's Personal Journey into the Dark Side of the Brain. New York: Current Publishing, 2013. Fallon, James H., et al. "Neuroanatomical Background to Understanding the Brain of the Young Psychopath." Open Journal of Medical Psychology 1, no. 3 (2012): 1–8. Raine, Adrian. The Anatomy of Violence: The Biological Roots of Crime. New York: Pantheon Books, 2013. Decety, Jean, Michal Michalska, and Kang Lee. "The Developmental Neuroscience of Moral Sensitivity." Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 2, no. 1 (2012): 1–13. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). "Next-Generation Nonsurgical Neurotechnology (N3)." Arlington, VA: DARPA Program Documentation. Law and Criminal Responsibility Jones, Owen D., Jeffrey D. Schall, and Francis X. Shen. Law and Neuroscience. New York: Aspen Publishers, 2014. Morse, Stephen J. "Brain Overclaim Syndrome and Criminal Responsibility." Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 3, no. 2 (2006): 397–412. Bromberg, Walter, and Hervey M. Cleckley. "The Medico-Legal Dilemma in the Evaluation of Criminal Responsibility." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 43, no. 6 (1952): 729–744. Denno, Deborah W. "The Myth of the Double-Edged Sword: An Empirical Study of Neuroscience Evidence in Criminal Cases." Boston College Law Review 56, no. 2 (2015): 493–551. Roper, Matthew T. "Brain Imaging and Criminal Responsibility." American Journal of Law and Medicine 22, no. 2–3 (1996): 351–379. Psychopathy and Criminal Justice Aharoni, Eyal, Vincent G. Yang, Kent A. Kiehl, R. A. Forster, and Walter Sinnott-Armstrong. "Neuroprediction of Future Rearrest." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 15 (2013): 6223–6228. Raine, Adrian. The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego: Academic Press, 1993. Hare, Robert D. Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us. New York: Guilford Press, 1999. Case Studies and Mental Health Thigpen, Corbett H., and Hervey M. Cleckley. The Three Faces of Eve. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957. Resnick, Phillip J. "The Andrea Yates Case and Postpartum Psychosis." Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 35, no. 1 (2007): 123–126. Fallon, James H. The Psychopath Inside: A Neuroscientist's Personal Journey into the Dark Side of the Brain. New York: Current Publishing, 2013.